AI: Herodotus, Thucydides, and Plutarch Compared: Ancient Greek Historians (Part I, “The History of Herodotus” or “Persian Wars”)

 

Herodotus, Thucydides, and Plutarch

Okay, let’s break down these three immensely influential figures from ancient Greece who are known primarily for their historical and biographical writings:

1. Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC):  
   • Title: Often called the “Father of History.”  
   • Significant Work: The Histories, an ambitious account primarily focused on the causes and events of the Greco-Persian Wars (early 5th century BC).  
   • Approach & Style:
     • Inquiry-Based: His work embodies the Greek word historia (inquiry). He traveled extensively, collecting stories, eyewitness accounts, oral traditions, myths, and geographical/ethnographic information.  
     • Broad Scope: Included descriptions of different cultures (Egyptians, Persians, Scythians, etc.), geography, legends, and anecdotes alongside political and military history.  
     • Divine Intervention: Attributed events partly to fate and the actions of the gods.  
     • Narrative Style: Wrote in an engaging, often digressive, storytelling style.  
   • Goal: To preserve the memory of great deeds (Greek and “barbarian”) and explain the causes of the conflict between the Greeks and Persians.  
   • Legacy: Established history as a distinct literary genre. While sometimes criticized for including hearsay or mythical elements, he pioneered the large-scale historical narrative and preserved invaluable cultural information.  
2. Thucydides (c. 460 – c. 400 BC):
   • Title: Often considered the “Father of Scientific History” or “Political Realism.”  
   • Significant Work: History of the Peloponnesian War, a detailed account of the war between Athens and Sparta (late 5th century BC). He was an Athenian general who participated in the war before being exiled.  
   • Approach & Style:
     • Rigorous & Analytical: Focused on the Peloponnesian War, aiming for accuracy and objectivity.  
     • Exclusion of the Divine: Excluded supernatural explanations, focusing solely on human actions, political factors, and rational causation.
     • Critical Use of Sources: Emphasized eyewitness accounts and critically evaluated evidence.  
     • Reconstructed Speeches: Included detailed speeches (which he admitted were reconstructed based on his understanding of what was likely said) to analyze the motivations and arguments of key figures.  
     • Dense & Analytical Style: His writing is often thick, complex, and focused on political and military analysis.  
   • Goal: To provide a precise, objective account of the war that would be useful for understanding the nature of power, politics, and human behavior in conflict (“a possession for all time”).  
   • Legacy: Set a new standard for historical methodology, emphasizing objectivity, rational analysis, and critical use of evidence. His work profoundly influenced political science and international relations theory.  
3. Plutarch (c. 46 – c. 120 AD):
   • Title: Renowned biographer and moral philosopher.
   • Major Works:
     • Parallel Lives: A series of biographies comparing famous Greeks and Romans (e.g., Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, Demosthenes and Cicero) to highlight their moral virtues and vices.
     • Moralia: A collection of ethical, philosophical, and literary essays.
   • Approach & Style:
     • Biographical Focus: Primarily interested in individual lives and character, not constructing a narrative history of events.
     • Moral Purpose: His main goal was ethical instruction, providing moral examples (both positive and negative) for his readers.
     • Anecdotal: Relying heavily on anecdotes and personal details to reveal character.
     • Engaging Style: Wrote in an accessible and engaging style.
   • Time Period: Crucially, Plutarch lived much later than Herodotus and Thucydides during the Roman Empire. He wrote about figures from the distant past, relying on earlier historical sources.
   • Legacy: He was immensely influential throughout Western history. His Parallel Lives was a primary source for Shakespeare’s Roman plays and deeply influenced European and American ideas about classical virtue and leadership for centuries. He shaped how later generations viewed many famous figures of antiquity.  

Key Differences Summarized:

Feature	Herodotus	Thucydides	Plutarch
Genre	History (broad narrative)	History (focused political/military)	Biography & Moral Philosophy
Time	5th Century BC	5th Century BC	1st-2nd Century AD (Roman Era)
Primary Goal	Preserve memory, explain causes	Accurate account, political lessons	Moral instruction, character study
Scope	Wide-ranging (wars, culture, myth)	Focused (Peloponnesian War)	Individual Lives (paired Greeks/Romans)
Methodology	Inquiry, inclusive (oral/myth)	Analytical, critical, secular	Anecdotal, focused on character
Style	Storyteller, digressive	Dense, analytical, objective	Engaging, ethical, anecdotal

Export to Sheets

In essence, Herodotus created history as a genre, Thucydides refined it into a rigorous analytical discipline, and Plutarch used historical figures primarily as subjects for biography and moral reflection. All three were foundational Western literature and thought figures, but their aims and methods differed significantly.

 

Herodotus

This is a Roman copy (2nd century AD) of a Greek bust of Herodotus from the first half of the 4th century BC.

(Wiki Image By This file was donated to Wikimedia Commons as part of a project by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. See the Image and Data Resources Open Access Policy, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=115708819) 

Herodotus Quotes

Herodotus, often called the “Father of History,” filled his work The Histories with observations, stories, and reflections. While attributing precise, concise quotes can sometimes be tricky with ancient translations, here are some key and widely cited statements attributed to him or directly reflecting the sentiments and approach found in his work:

1. “Herodotus of Halicarnassus here displays his inquiry, so that human achievements may not be forgotten in time, and great and marvellous deeds – some displayed by Greeks, some by barbarians – may not be without their glory; and especially to show why the two peoples fought with each other.”  
   • Source: Opening lines of The Histories.
   • Significance: This is Herodotus’s mission statement. It clearly outlines his purpose: to preserve the memory of significant events (“human achievements,” “great and marvellous deeds”), to give credit to both Greeks and non-Greeks (“barbarians”), and, crucially, to investigate the causes (“why the two peoples fought”) of the Greco-Persian Wars. This focus on causation is key to why he’s considered the first true historian.
2. “My business is to record what people say, but I am by no means bound to believe it – and that may be taken to apply to this book as a whole.”  
   • Source: The Histories, Book 7.
   • Significance: This famous quote reveals Herodotus’s historical method (historia meaning inquiry). He acknowledges that he includes accounts and stories he has heard (oral tradition was a primary source). Still, he maintains a critical distance, indicating that recording something doesn’t equate to personal belief in its absolute truth. It shows an awareness of source reliability, even if his standards differ from modern ones.
3. “Custom is king of all.” (Nomos Panton Basileus)
   • Source: Often attributed to Herodotus (and the poet Pindar), reflecting a story he tells in The Histories (Book 3) about King Darius comparing Greek and Callatian funeral practices.
   • Significance: This encapsulates Herodotus’s keen observation of cultural relativism. Through his travels and inquiries, he recognized that different peoples have vastly different customs and beliefs, each considering their way to be correct. It highlights his ethnographic interest.
4. “Circumstances rule men; men do not rule circumstances.”
   • Source: Attributed.
   • Significance: This reflects a recurring theme in The Histories concerning the role of fate, fortune, and factors beyond individual control in shaping human events. While he focused on human actions, Herodotus often acknowledged that outcomes weren’t solely determined by human will.
5. “In peace, sons bury their fathers. In war, fathers bury their sons.”
   • Source: The Histories, Book 1 (attributed to Croesus).
   • Significance: A poignant reflection on the unnatural tragedy and disruption caused by war, reversing the natural order of life and death. It shows Herodotus’s capacity for conveying the human cost of conflict.
6. “It is better to be envied than pitied.”
   • Source: The Histories, Book 3.
   • Significance: A pragmatic observation on human nature and social standing, typical of the worldly wisdom woven into his narrative.
7. “Great deeds are usually wrought at great risks.”
   • Source: The Histories, Book 7.
   • Significance: Reflects the theme of ambition, risk-taking, and the often perilous path to achieving significant accomplishments, a common motif in the stories of the leaders he describes.

These quotes illustrate Herodotus’s groundbreaking approach: his desire to preserve memory, investigate causes, record diverse perspectives (while maintaining some skepticism), explore different cultures, and reflect on the nature of human fortune and conflict.

 

Herodotus YouTube Video

Herodotus and the Persian Wars

Avenging Leonidas – The 2nd Greco Persian War (ALL …

Herodotus’ Histories (FULL Audiobook) – book (1 of 3)

 

Herodotus YouTube Video Movies

The 300 Spartans

(Wiki Image By 20th Century Fox – Impawards, Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=13104524)

The 300 Spartans (1962) Trailer

 

300: The portrayal of King Xerxes (right) was criticized. Snyder said of Xerxes, “What’s more scary to a 20-year-old boy than a giant god-king who wants to have his way with you?”

(Wiki Image Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20116456)

300 – Original Theatrical Trailer

 

300: Rise of an Empire

(Wiki Image By http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=103085, Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39134539) 

300: Rise of an Empire – Official Trailer 1 [HD]

 

Herodotus History

Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) is widely regarded as the “Father of History” in Western literature. He was an ancient Greek writer, geographer, and historian who was the first to systematically collect his materials, test their accuracy to a certain extent, and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative.  

1. Life and Travels:

• Origin: Born in Halicarnassus, a Greek city in Ionia (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey), part of the Persian Empire. This position at the crossroads of Greek and non-Greek cultures likely influenced his broad perspective.
• Family and Background: He likely came from a relatively wealthy and influential family, which would have facilitated his extensive education and travels.
• Exile: Political troubles in Halicarnassus may have led to his exile for a period.
• Extensive Travels: Herodotus traveled widely throughout the ancient world, a crucial part of his historical method. His known or likely destinations included:
  • Egypt (where he traveled extensively along the Nile)
  • The Persian Empire (including Mesopotamia)
  • Scythia (the region north of the Black Sea)
  • Various parts of Greece and the Aegean islands
  • Possibly southern Italy (Magna Graecia)
• Later Life: He seems to have spent time in Athens during its Golden Age under Pericles and may have settled in Thurii, a Greek colony in southern Italy, where he likely completed his major work.

2. The Histories:

• Significant Work: Herodotus’s single, monumental work is The Histories.
• Scope: While its central theme is the Greco-Persian Wars (499-479 BC), The Histories has a much broader scope. It delves into the origins and rise of the Persian Empire, providing detailed accounts of the geography, ethnography (customs and cultures), and history of the various peoples within the empire and its neighboring regions (including Egyptians, Scythians, Libyans, etc.).
• Purpose: Herodotus states his purpose explicitly in the opening lines:
  “Herodotus of Halicarnassus here displays his inquiry, so that human achievements may not be forgotten in time, and great and marvellous deeds – some displayed by Greeks, some by barbarians – may not be without their glory; and especially to show why the two peoples fought with each other.”  
  • This highlights his goals: preserving memory, celebrating great deeds (of both sides), and, crucially, investigating the causes of conflict.

3. Methodology and Style:

• Historia (Inquiry): Herodotus approached his work as a historian, which means “inquiry” or “investigation.” He actively sought out information.
• Sources: He relied on a variety of sources:
  • Oral Accounts: Interviews with witnesses, priests, local officials, and storytellers encountered during his travels.
  • Written Records: Logographers (earlier Greek prose writers), inscriptions, archives (though access was limited).
  • Personal Observation: Descriptions of places, monuments, and customs he witnessed.
• Inclusivity: Unlike later historians like Thucydides, Herodotus included many materials, including myths, legends, anecdotes, oracles, and divine interventions alongside political and military narratives.
• Critical Assessment (Limited): He sometimes expressed skepticism about specific stories or presented multiple versions of an event, indicating an essential degree of assessment (e.g., “My business is to record what people say, but I am by no means bound to believe it”). However, his standards for evidence differ significantly from modern historical practice.
• Narrative Style: His writing is engaging, often like a skilled storyteller. He frequently includes digressions and fascinating details about different cultures.

4. Criticisms and Reliability:

• “Father of Lies”? Herodotus has been criticized since antiquity (notably by Thucydides and later Plutarch) for including fantastical stories, hearsay, and potential inaccuracies. He was sometimes labelled the “Father of Lies.”
• Bias: While aiming to record the deeds of Greeks and barbarians, his perspective is ultimately Greek.
• Modern Assessment: Modern historians recognize the limitations of his methodology but also value his work immensely. He preserved vast information about the ancient world that would otherwise be lost. His ethnographic descriptions are invaluable, and his attempt to write a comprehensive history focused on causation was groundbreaking.

5. Legacy:

• Founder of History: He is credited with establishing history as a distinct literary genre and field of inquiry in the Western tradition.
• Influence: His work influenced subsequent Greek and Roman historians, though some (like Thucydides) consciously reacted against his inclusive, less rigorously analytical style.
• Primary Source: The Histories remains a primary source for the Greco-Persian Wars and for understanding the ancient Near East, Egypt, and Scythia cultures from a Greek perspective.
• Enduring Appeal: His engaging narrative style and wide-ranging curiosity make his work readable and fascinating today.

In summary, Herodotus was a pioneering figure who traveled extensively to gather information for his groundbreaking work, The Histories. While his methods differ from modern standards, his attempt to systematically inquire into the past, explain the causes of significant events like the Greco-Persian Wars, and preserve the memory of diverse peoples earned him the enduring title “Father of History.” His work remains a cornerstone of classical literature and a vital source for understanding the ancient world.

 

The History of Herodotus

 

Herodotus: The First Book, Entitled Clio

Cyrus the Great (center) with his General Harpagus behind him, as he receives the submission of Astyages (18th century tapestry)

(Wiki Image By Designed by Maximilien de Haese, Woven by Jac. Van der Borght (1771-1775) – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=75000688) 

 

Croesus on the pyre, Attic red-figure amphora, 500–490 BC, Louvre (G 197)

(Wiki Image By Myson – User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-06-06, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2228570) 

 

Herodotus Clio Quotes

Here are some significant quotes from Book 1 (Clio) of Herodotus’s The Histories. Keep in mind that translations can vary slightly.

1. “Herodotus of Halicarnassus here displays his inquiry, so that human achievements may not be forgotten in time, and great and  marvellous deeds – some displayed by Greeks, some by barbarians – may not be without their glory; and especially to show why the two peoples fought with each other.” 
   1. Source: Book 1, Section 1 (Opening lines)
   2. Context: Herodotus’s preface, stating his purpose for writing.
   3. Significance: Establishes history to preserve memory, acknowledges non-Greeks’ achievements (“barbarians”), and sets out his primary goal: investigating the causes of the Greco-Persian Wars.
2. “Count no man happy until he be dead.” (Often paraphrased this way). The fuller context is Solon speaking to Croesus: “…look to the end of every matter, how it will turn out. For the deity has given prosperous fortune to many and then utterly ruined them.”
   1. Source: Book 1, Section 32
   2. Context: The Athenian sage Solon responds to King Croesus of Lydia, who believes himself the happiest man alive due to his immense wealth.
   3. Significance: This chapter introduces a key theme of the book (and The Histories): the instability of human fortune, the dangers of hubris, and the idea that true happiness or fortune can only be judged over a lifetime. It foreshadows Croesus’s eventual downfall.
3. “[The Oracle at Delphi told Croesus:] that if he should send an army against the Persians he would destroy a great empire.”
   1. Source: Book 1, Section 53
   2. Context: The famously ambiguous prophecy given to Croesus when he inquired about attacking Cyrus the Great.
   3. Significance: Illustrates the theme of fate and the often misleading nature of oracles. Croesus tragically misinterpreted this to mean he would destroy the Persian empire, not his own.
4. “[Croesus, captured and placed on the pyre by Cyrus, remembered Solon’s words and] groaned and thrice cried out the name ‘Solon!'”
   1. Source: Book 1, Section 86
   2. Context: Croesus, facing imminent death on the funeral pyre after his defeat, finally understands the wisdom of Solon’s earlier warning about fortune.
   3. Significance: A dramatic culmination of the Croesus narrative, emphasizing the themes of hubris, the reversal of fortune, and the wisdom gained through suffering.
5. “In peace, sons bury their fathers. In war, fathers bury their sons.”
   1. Source: Book 1, Section 87
   2. Context: Croesus spoke to Cyrus after his capture, reflecting on the unnatural tragedy of war.
   3. Significance: A powerful and timeless observation on the human cost of conflict, highlighting the disruption of the natural order caused by warfare.
6. “Soft lands breed soft men.” (Often paraphrased; the context relates to Cyrus advising the Persians against migrating from their rugged homeland to a more prosperous, easier land after their conquests).
   1. Source: Book 1, Section 157 (This idea is revisited more famously at the end of Book 9, but the core sentiment appears earlier).
   2. Context: This reflects a common Greek belief about the influence of geography and environment on character.
   3. Significance: It suggests that hardship breeds strength, while luxury leads to weakness—a theme relevant to empires’ rise and potential fall.

These quotes from Book 1 (Clio) showcase Herodotus’s narrative style, his interest in causation, his use of dialogue and anecdote, and the key themes of fortune, fate, hubris, cultural differences, and the origins of conflict that he establishes at the outset of his great work.

 

Herodotus Clio Table

Here is a table summarizing the key sections, figures, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 1, Clio.

Section / Major Topic	Key Figures / Peoples Involved	Summary of Content / Key Events	Key Themes / Significance
1. Preface & Introduction	Herodotus himself	States his purpose: to preserve memory, record great deeds (Greek & barbarian), and explain the causes of the Greco-Persian Wars.	Establishes history as inquiry (historia). Sets out the scope and goal of the entire work.
2. Mythical Origins	Io, Europa, Medea, Helen, Paris, Phoenicians, Greeks, Trojans	Recounts legendary abductions and conflicts between East (Asia) and West (Europe) as perceived early causes of animosity. Quickly shift focus to identifiable historical aggressors.	Sets a broad context of ancient East-West conflict and acknowledges traditional myths before moving to historical accounts.
3. Rise of Lydia	Gyges, Candaules, Alyattes, Croesus, Lydians	This is the story of Gyges usurping the throne, establishing and growing the Lydian kingdom, consolidating power, and early interactions with Greek cities.	Lydia is introduced as the first significant non-Greek power to subjugate Ionian Greeks, setting the stage for the central figure of Croesus.
4. Reign of Croesus	Croesus, Solon, Oracle at Delphi, Adrastus, Cyrus the Great, Lydians	Croesus’s immense wealth and power; famous dialogue with Solon on happiness; consultation of oracles (ambiguous prophecy); decision to attack Persia; defeat by Cyrus; capture of Sardis; dramatic scene on the funeral pyre.	This major narrative arc illustrates themes of hubris, instability of fortune, limitations of wealth, misinterpretation of divine signs, and the rise of Persia. Croesus serves as a pivotal, tragic figure.
5. Rise of Persia & Cyrus the Great	Cyrus the Great, Astyages, Medes, Persians, Harpagus	The legendary birth story of Cyrus tells of his upbringing and his successful rebellion against and overthrow of the Median Empire led by his grandfather, Astyages.	Explains the origins and founding of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, the dominant power that would eventually confront Greece.
6. Cyrus’s Conquests	Cyrus, Croesus, Lydians, Ionian Greeks, Babylonians, Massagetae	Conquest of Lydia (defeating Croesus); subjugation of the Ionian Greek cities on the coast of Anatolia; campaigns against other peoples (brief mention of Babylon); final campaign against the Massagetae.	This chapter details the rapid expansion of the Persian Empire under its founder and highlights the Greeks’ subjugation, a key cause of later conflict.
7. Persian Customs	Persians	Ethnographic description of Persian society, religion (Zoroastrian elements mentioned), burial practices, social hierarchy, attitudes towards truth, debt, wine, etc.	It demonstrates Herodotus’ ethnographic interest and provides valuable (though potentially biased) insights into Persian culture from a Greek perspective.
8. Death of Cyrus	Cyrus, Queen Tomyris, Massagetae	Cyrus’s campaign against the nomadic Massagetae, his initial success through trickery, his eventual defeat and death in battle at the hands of Queen Tomyris (according to one tradition reported by Herodotus).	This book concludes the story of the founder of the Persian Empire. It reinforces themes of the limits of power, the unpredictability of fortune, and the dangers of hubris, even for the greatest conquerors.

Export to Sheets

This table provides a structured overview of the main components of Clio, highlighting the intertwined stories of Lydia and Persia, the key figures of Croesus and Cyrus, and the foundational themes Herodotus establishes for his larger work on the Greco-Persian Wars.

 

Herodotus Clio Highlights

Okay, here are the significant highlights of Herodotus’s Book 1, Clio:

1. Herodotus’s Introduction and Purpose: The book famously opens with Herodotus stating his groundbreaking intention: to conduct an inquiry (historia) to preserve the memory of great deeds by both Greeks and non-Greeks (“barbarians”) and, crucially, to explain the causes of the conflict between them, particularly the Greco-Persian Wars. This sets the stage for history as an analytical discipline.
2. The Story of Croesus: This is arguably the most famous narrative arc in Book 1. It details the immense wealth and power of Croesus, King of Lydia, his dialogue with the wise Solon about the nature of happiness (where Solon warns him to “count no man happy until he be dead”), his misinterpretation of the ambiguous Oracle at Delphi, his hubristic attack on Persia, his dramatic defeat by Cyrus the Great, and his near-execution on a pyre (where he is saved after recalling Solon’s wisdom). It’s a powerful cautionary tale about fortune and pride.
3. The Rise of Cyrus the Great and Persia: Herodotus chronicles the emergence of the Persian Empire under its founder, Cyrus. This includes the legendary tales of Cyrus’s birth and upbringing, his overthrow of the Median Empire, and his subsequent rapid conquests, including Lydia and the Greek cities of Ionia. This established Persia as the dominant power in the region.
4. Ethnographic Descriptions: Clio showcases Herodotus’s keen interest in different cultures. He describes the Lydians’ customs, geography, religion, and social practices, especially the Persians. While containing potential inaccuracies and Greek biases, these sections are invaluable for understanding ancient perceptions and preserving cultural details.
5. Introduction of Key Themes: This first book introduces significant themes that resonate throughout The Histories:
   • The instability of human fortune (the rise and fall of individuals and empires).
   • The dangers of hubris (excessive pride leading to downfall, exemplified by Croesus).
   • The clash between cultures (East vs. West, Greek vs. Barbarian).
   • The role of fate, oracles, and divine intervention alongside human actions.
   • The investigation of causation in historical events.
6. The “First Wrongs”: Herodotus identifies Croesus as the first non-Greek ruler (from his perspective) to commit injustices against the Greeks by conquering the Ionian cities, setting a historical precedent for the later Persian conflict.

In essence, Book 1 (Clio) serves as a rich foundation, introducing the main antagonist (Persia), exploring the historical background through Lydia’s lens, and establishing the key themes and narrative style that define Herodotus’s entire work.

 

Herodotus: The Second Book, Entitled Euterpe

The Great Pyramid in May 2023

(WIki Image By Douwe C. van der Zee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=138278511) 

 

Simplistic representation of the Ancient Egyptian mummification process.

(Wiki Image By SimplisticReps – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=92280695) 

Herodotus Euterpe Quotes

Here are some notable quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 2, Euterpe, which is dedicated entirely to his descriptions and inquiries about Egypt. This book is famous for its detailed (though not consistently accurate) accounts of Egyptian geography, history, customs, and religion.

1. “Egypt… is an acquired country, the gift of the river.”
   • Source: Book 2, Section 5
   • Context: Herodotus describes Egypt’s geography and the Nile River’s crucial role in creating fertile land through its annual floods and silt deposits.
   • Significance: This is perhaps the most famous quote about Egypt attributed to Herodotus (though he might have been quoting Hecataeus). It encapsulates the Nile’s fundamental importance to Egyptian civilization.
2. “Concerning Egypt, I shall extend my remarks to a great length because there is no country that possesses so many wonders nor any that has such a number of works which defy description.”  
   • Source: Book 2, Section 35
   • Context: Introducing his detailed discussion of Egyptian customs.
   • Significance: This shows Herodotus’s profound fascination and awe with Egypt’s unique culture, ancient history, and monumental architecture. It sets the stage for his detailed ethnographic descriptions.
3. “…the people also, in most of their manners and customs, exactly reverse the common practice of mankind.”
   • Source: Book 2, Section 35
   • Context: Following the quote above, Herodotus begins listing examples where he perceives Egyptian customs as the opposite of Greek (or other) practices (e.g., women attending market, men weaving at home, writing from right to left).
   • Significance: This passage highlights Herodotus’s ethnographic approach and tendency to emphasize the “otherness” or unique aspects of foreign cultures, particularly Egypt, which deeply impressed Greek visitors.
4. “The Egyptians are religious to excess, far beyond any other race of men.”
   • Source: Book 2, Section 37
   • Context: Introducing his discussion of Egyptian religious practices.
   • Significance: This document reflects the Greek perception of the Egyptians as deeply pious and their religious life as pervasive and elaborate, particularly noting practices like meticulous cleanliness and animal worship.
5. “[Regarding the builders of the pyramids, like Cheops:] he closed all the temples and forbade the Egyptians to offer sacrifice, compelling them instead to labour, one and all, in his service.”
   • Source: Book 2, Section 124  
   • Context: Recounting stories he heard from priests about the pharaohs responsible for building the Great Pyramids.
   • Significance: This document illustrates Herodotus’s method of reporting historical traditions (often critical of powerful rulers) as told to him by his sources (in this case, Egyptian priests). It shows his interest in the history and reigns of the pharaohs, even if the accounts mix fact and legend.
6. “As to the stories that I was told by the priests concerning the gods, I am not desirous of repeating them, saving only the names…”
   • Source: Book 2, Section 3
   • Context: Expressing caution about relating certain Egyptian religious myths or secret doctrines.
   • Significance: This shows a degree of respectful reticence or skepticism about revealing sacred or potentially unbelievable religious details, contrasting with his willingness to report other wonders.
7. “[The crocodile] during the four winter months… eats nothing; it is amphibious, and lives mainly in the river, but also frequents the land and marshy ground…”
   • Source: Book 2, Section 68
   • Context: Part of his detailed descriptions of Egyptian wildlife.
   • Significance: Demonstrates his keen interest in natural history and his practice of recording details about the flora and fauna of the lands he visited, blending geography, zoology, and ethnography.

These quotes from Book 2 (Euterpe) showcase Herodotus’s fascination with Egypt, his ethnographic curiosity, his method of reporting what he saw and heard (from priests and others), his interest in geography and natural history, and his tendency to highlight the unique and wondrous aspects of Egyptian civilization as perceived through Greek eyes.

 

Herodotus Euterpe Table

Okay, here is a table summarizing the key aspects, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 2, Euterpe, which focuses entirely on Egypt.

Major Topic / Category	Key Subjects Covered / Examples	Herodotus’s Approach / Key Observations or Claims	Significance / Themes Introduced
Geography	– The Nile River: Its unique nature, annual flood, attempts to understand its source (acknowledges uncertainty), crucial role in creating fertile land. <br> – The land of Egypt: Described as the “gift of the river.”	– Observation, inquiry, reporting local explanations (often mythical) for the flood. <br> – Expresses wonder at the Nile’s behavior.	– Emphasizes the centrality of the Nile to Egyptian life and civilization. <br> – Highlights geographical wonders and the limits of Greek knowledge (Nile’s source).
History	– Lists of Pharaohs: From Menes (first king) through various dynasties, including builders like Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre), Mycerinus (Menkaure), and conquerors like Sesostris. <br> – Stories about their reigns: Often anecdotal, focusing on monumental building, laws, piety, or tyranny.	– Relies heavily on accounts heard from Egyptian priests and local informants. <br> – Mixes historical figures with legendary deeds and potentially inaccurate chronologies. <br> – Records traditions about the pharaohs.	– Preserves Egyptian historical traditions (as understood/related by his sources). <br> – Explores themes of kingship, power, piety vs. tyranny (e.g., contrasting Mycerinus with Cheops). <br> – Accuracy is highly variable.
Religion	– Egyptian Gods: Describes the pantheon, often equating Egyptian gods with their Greek counterparts (e.g., Amun = Zeus, Osiris = Dionysus, Isis = Demeter). <br> – Animal Worship: Detailed accounts of the veneration of sacred animals (cats, crocodiles, bulls like Apis, ibis). <br> – Rituals and Practices: Describes elaborate religious rituals, festivals, oracles, and beliefs about purity. <br> – Mummification: Provides a detailed (though not entirely accurate) description of embalming techniques. <br> – Afterlife Beliefs: Discusses beliefs about the soul’s immortality and transmigration.	– Detailed descriptions based on observation and priestly accounts. <br> – Expresses awe at Egyptian piety (“religious to excess”). <br> – Sometimes cautious about revealing sacred mysteries. <br> – Attempts interpretatio Graeca (explaining foreign gods in Greek terms).	– Provides invaluable (though potentially filtered or misunderstood) information on Egyptian religious beliefs and practices. <br> – Highlights Egyptian influence on Greek religion. <br> – Explores piety, death, and the afterlife themes.
Customs and Society	– Daily Life: Describes aspects of diet, clothing, and medicine. <br> – “Reversal” of Customs: Famously claims many Egyptian customs are the opposite of Greek practices (e.g., women in markets, men weaving at home, specific hygiene rules). <br> – Writing: Describes hieroglyphic and demotic scripts. <br> – Social Hierarchy: Implicit descriptions of priests, soldiers, artisans, etc.	– Observation and comparison with Greek customs, often emphasizing Egyptian uniqueness and perceived “otherness.” <br> – Relies on local informants.	– Rich ethnographic detail, offering a window into Egyptian society (as seen by a Greek). <br> – Explores themes of cultural difference and relativism. <br> – The “reversal” theme is a famous, though perhaps exaggerated, aspect of his account.
Natural History	– Animals: Descriptions of crocodiles, hippopotamuses, ibis, snakes, and the mythical phoenix. <br> – Plants: Discusses papyrus and other flora.	– Observing and reporting local stories and beliefs about animals (mixing factual description with folklore).	– Herodotus’s broad curiosity extends beyond human affairs to the natural world. <br> – Provides early examples of natural history writing.
Architecture	– Pyramids: Describe their construction (attributing them to tyrannical pharaohs like Cheops). <br> – Temples: Mention major temple complexes (e.g., Karnak, Memphis). <br> – The Labyrinth: Describes a vast, complex funerary temple near Lake Moeris.	– Descriptions based on observation and local accounts. <br> – Expresses wonder and amazement at the scale, antiquity, and engineering skill involved in Egyptian monuments.	– Records Greek impressions of Egypt’s monumental architecture. <br> – Contributes to the Greek (and later European) awe of ancient Egyptian civilization.

Export to Sheets

This table summarizes the rich and diverse content of Herodotus’s Book 2, Euterpe. It highlights his deep fascination with Egypt, his methods of gathering information (travel, interviews, observation), and the recurring themes of cultural comparison, religious piety, the importance of the Nile, and the wonders of Egypt’s ancient history and monuments. It also implicitly shows his work’s blend of factual reporting, received tradition, and legend.

 

Herodotus Euterpe Highlights

Here are the significant highlights of Herodotus’s Book 2, Euterpe, his extensive account of Egypt:

1. Egypt as the “Gift of the Nile”: Herodotus famously describes Egypt as the creation of the Nile River, emphasizing the vital importance of its annual flood and silt deposits for the land’s fertility and the civilization’s survival. He marvels at the river’s unique behavior and inquires (ultimately unsuccessfully) into the mystery of its source.
2. Antiquity and Wonders: Throughout the book, Herodotus expresses profound awe at the sheer age of Egyptian civilization and its “wonders,” which he considers more numerous than any other country. This sense of ancientness and magnificence permeates his descriptions.
3. “Reversed” Customs: A memorable section details numerous Egyptian customs and manners that Herodotus claims are the opposite of Greek (and general human) practices, such as women attending market while men weave at home, specific hygiene rituals, and their unique writing system. This highlights his ethnographic interest and emphasis on cultural differences.
4. Deep Religious Piety and Practices: He extensively covers Egyptian religion, describing the Egyptians as “religious to excess.” Highlights include:
   • Detailed accounts of various gods (often equated with Greek deities).
   • Vivid descriptions of animal worship (cats, crocodiles, Apis bull).
   • Elaborate religious festivals and rituals.
   • Fascinating details about divination and oracles.
   • A famous, detailed description of different methods of mummification.
5. Monumental Architecture (Especially Pyramids): Herodotus provides early descriptions of Egypt’s incredible monuments, most notably the Pyramids of Giza. He recounts stories (likely blending fact and legend learned from priests) about the pharaohs who built them, such as Cheops (Khufu), often portraying them critically as tyrants who enslaved their people for these projects. He also describes the vast Labyrinth complex.
6. Natural History: His curiosity extends to the natural world, and he offers descriptions of Egyptian animals like crocodiles (with details on their habits and how they were hunted), hippopotamuses, ibises, and the mythical phoenix bird.
7. Historical Accounts of Pharaohs: Herodotus’s narratives about various pharaohs rely heavily on priestly accounts and potentially inaccurate chronologies, offering a glimpse into Egyptian history as understood in his time.

Book 2 (Euterpe) is a rich tapestry of geography, history, ethnography, religion, and natural history centered on Herodotus’s fascination with Egypt’s ancient, unique, and wondrous civilization. It showcases his method of inquiry, storytelling ability, and role in transmitting knowledge (and sometimes myths) about Egypt to the Greek world.

 

Herodotus: The Third Book, Entitled Thalia

Imaginary 19th-century illustration of Cambyses II meeting Psamtik III.

(Wiki Image By Adrien Guignet – http://www.the-athenaeum.org/art/detail.php?ID=108972&msg=You+were+sent+here+because+this+artist+only+has+one+artwork+in+our+database.++This+is+it., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30405983)

 

The relief stone of Darius the Great in the Behistun Inscription

(Wiki Image By Rumlu – [1], Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=146053444) 

Herodotus Thalia Quotes

Here are some significant quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 3, Thalia. This book focuses primarily on the reign of the Persian King Cambyses II (son of Cyrus), his conquest of Egypt, his alleged madness, the subsequent revolt of the Magi, and the rise of Darius the Great.

1. “[Amasis wrote to Polycrates of Samos:] ‘Your exceeding good fortune does not please me, as I know the divinity is jealous. […] Toss away that thing… which, if you lost it, would grieve your soul the most.'”
   • Source: Book 3, Section 40
   • Context: The Egyptian Pharaoh Amasis advises his ally Polycrates, the extremely lucky tyrant of Samos, to deliberately discard his most valued possession (an emerald ring) to avert divine jealousy and potential disaster. Polycrates throws the ring into the sea, only for it to be found inside a fish presented to him later – suggesting his fortune is inescapable.
   • Significance: This chapter introduces the story of Polycrates, a classic example in Herodotus of the theme of hubris and the instability of excessive good fortune, which often attracts divine envy (nemesis).
2. “[Otanes argued for democracy:] ‘My opinion is… that we must entrust the government to the whole body of the people… For the rule of the many, in the first place, has the fairest of names, equality before the law (isonomia)…'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 3, Section 80
   • Context: This is part of the famous (and likely fictionalized or anachronistic) debate among the seven Persian conspirators after they overthrew the Magi usurper. Otanes advocates for establishing a democracy in Persia.
   • Significance: It presents one of the earliest recorded arguments for democracy, highlighting its perceived fairness and accountability, as a Greek writer understands.
3. “[Megabyzus argued for oligarchy:] ‘Nothing is more foolish or more insolent than a useless mob… let us choose a group of the best men, and entrust the government to them…'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 3, Section 81
   • Context: Megabyzus responds to Otanes during the debate, arguing against democracy and in favor of rule by an elite group (oligarchy).
   • Significance: It presents the oligarchic argument against mob rule’s perceived instability and ignorance.
4. “[Darius argued for monarchy:] ‘Nothing can be found better than the rule of the one best man. His judgment being wise as himself, he will govern the multitude with discretion… In an oligarchy… strong personal enmities commonly arise… In a democracy, it is impossible but that there will be corruption…'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 3, Section 82
   • Context: Darius delivers the winning argument in the debate, advocating for monarchy as the most stable and effective form of government.
   • Significance: This section presents the case for monarchy, emphasizing efficiency and wisdom under a single, capable ruler. It provides valuable insight into Greek political thought (ascribed to Persians).
5. “[On Cambyses’ madness:] For it is plain to all men that he was completely mad; otherwise he would not have set himself to deride religion and custom.”
   • Source: Book 3, Section 38
   • Context: Herodotus concludes a section detailing Cambyses’s alleged outrages against Egyptian religious practices (like killing the sacred Apis bull) and Persian customs.
   • Significance: This shows Herodotus attributing Cambyses’s tyrannical actions to madness, which is often linked in Greek thought to impiety and disrespect for customs (both one’s own and others’). It serves as a negative example of kingship.
6. “[On Darius becoming king through his horse neighing:] Darius’s groom… contrived a trick… [when the horses were brought out] Darius’s horse ran forward and neighed, and at the same time lightning flashed from a clear sky… the other six leaped from their horses and prostrated themselves before Darius.” (Paraphrased narrative summary)
   • Source: Book 3, Sections 85-87
   • Context: The story of how Darius won the kingship after the conspirators agreed that he whose horse neighed first at sunrise would be king.
   • Significance: A famous, likely legendary tale illustrating Darius’s cleverness (or his groom’s) and perhaps suggesting divine favor in his rise to power, cementing the legitimacy of his rule after the overthrow of the Magi.

These quotes from Book 3 (Thalia) highlight its key narratives and themes: the dangers of unchecked power and madness (Cambyses), reflections on different forms of government, the precariousness of fortune (Polycrates), and the dramatic rise of Darius the Great to the Persian throne.

 

Herodotus Thalia Table

Here is a table summarizing the key sections, figures, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 3, Thalia. This book primarily covers the reign of Persian King Cambyses II and the rise of Darius the Great.

Section / Major Topic	Key Figures / Peoples Involved	Summary of Content / Key Events	Key Themes / Significance
1. Cambyses’ Invasion of Egypt	Cambyses II, Amasis (deceased Pharaoh), Psammenitus III (new Pharaoh), Persians, Egyptians	Background involving Amasis; Persian invasion; defeat of the Egyptian army at Pelusium; capture of Memphis; capture and initial humiliation, then execution, of Pharaoh Psammenitus III.	The expansion of the Persian Empire into Africa, the demonstration of Persian military power, and the introduction of Cambyses as a successful conqueror (initially).
2. Cambyses’ Madness & Tyranny in Egypt	Cambyses, Apis Bull, Egyptian priests	Cambyses’ alleged increasingly erratic and impious behavior in Egypt: mocking Egyptian customs, wounding and causing the death of the sacred Apis bull, and desecrating temples and tombs.	The portrayal of Cambyses as descending into madness and tyranny, linked to impiety, explores the corrupting influence of absolute power and contrasts with Cyrus’s generally more tolerant rule.
3. Cambyses’ Failed Expeditions	Cambyses, Persians, Ethiopians, Ammonians	Disastrous expedition against Ethiopia (army resorts to cannibalism due to poor planning); mysterious disappearance of an army sent against the Oasis of Ammon (supposedly buried in a sandstorm).	It demonstrates the limits of Persian power and the potential consequences of Cambyses’ hubris and poor judgment, hinting at divine retribution.
4. Cambyses’ Cruelty	Cambyses, Smerdis (Bardiya – his brother), his sister/wife, Prexaspes	Execution of his brother Smerdis out of jealousy, marries and later kills his sister; shooting the son of his trusted advisor Prexaspes through the heart to prove his sanity/skill.	Further evidence of Cambyses’ alleged madness, cruelty, and tyrannical nature highlights the dangers those close to an absolute ruler face.
5. Revolt of the Magi	Cambyses, Patizeithes (Magus), Smerdis the Magus (Gaumata), Persians	While Cambyses is absent, two Magi brothers revolt; one (Gaumata) impersonates the murdered Smerdis and claims the throne, gaining widespread support due to resentment against Cambyses.	It highlights instability within the Persian Empire, uses the theme of deception and false identity, and sets the stage for Darius’s rise.
6. Death of Cambyses	Cambyses	Hears news of the Magi revolt while returning from Egypt, accidentally wounds himself severely with his sword while mounting his horse, and dies from the gangrenous wound, supposedly realizing an oracle about his death.	It ended the reign of the tyrannical king, which Herodotus saw as possible divine retribution. It created a power vacuum and allowed the Magi to consolidate control briefly.
7. Conspiracy of the Seven	Darius, Otanes, Gobryas, Megabyzus, other Persian nobles, Smerdis the Magus	Seven Persian nobles, led by Otanes and Darius, conspire to expose the impersonation and overthrow the false Smerdis (the Magus); they enter the palace and kill the Magi.	It restores Persian control from the Median Magi and demonstrates the power and solidarity of the Persian nobility.
8. Debate on Government	Otanes, Megabyzus, Darius	The famous (possibly anachronistic) debate among the seven conspirators about Persia’s best form of government: Otanes argues for democracy (isonomia), Megabyzus for oligarchy, and Darius successfully argues for monarchy.	This is a unique passage exploring Greek political theory through Persian characters. It presents arguments for different constitutional forms and provides insight into the political thought of Herodotus’s time.
9. Darius Becomes King	Darius, the other six conspirators, Oebares (Darius’s groom)	The agreement that he whose horse neighs first at sunrise shall be king; the clever trick contrived by Darius’s groom involving a mare; Darius’s horse neighs, accompanied by auspicious lightning; Darius wins the throne.	Explains (through a likely legendary account) how Darius ascended to the throne over the other conspirators and legitimizes his rule through perceived divine favor and cleverness.
10. Darius’s Early Reign & Organization	Darius, Persians, Babylonians, Zopyrus	Reorganization of the Persian Empire into satrapies (provinces); establishment of a fixed tribute system; building projects; suppression of the long Revolt of Babylon (including the famous story of Zopyrus mutilating himself to gain the Babylonians’ trust).	It shows Darius as an effective administrator and consolidator of the empire and establishes the structure of the Persian Empire that would confront Greece.
11. Digressions	Polycrates of Samos, Amasis, Oroetes (Persian satrap), Democedes (Greek physician)	This is the story of Polycrates’s excessive good fortune, the advice from Amasis, the discarded ring, and his eventual cruel death at the hands of Oroetes. The story concerns Democedes’s capture, medical service at the Persian court, and eventual escape.	Illustrate themes of fortune’s instability (Polycrates) and the interactions between Greeks and Persians, including Greek skills valued at the Persian court (Democedes). Provides colour and moral lessons.

Export to Sheets

This table structure follows the primary narrative threads of Herodotus’s Book 3, Thalia, outlining the key events, figures, and underlying themes concerning the reigns of Cambyses and the rise of Darius.

 

Herodotus Thalia Highlights

Here are the key highlights from Herodotus’s Book 3, Thalia:

1. Cambyses’ Conquest of Egypt: The book details the Persian invasion under Cyrus’s son, Cambyses II, leading to the defeat of the Egyptians and the expansion of the Persian Empire into Africa.
2. Cambyses’ Madness and Tyranny: A significant portion focuses on Cambyses’ alleged descent into madness following his conquest. Herodotus recounts his impious acts (like killing the sacred Apis bull), cruelty towards his own family (killing his brother Smerdis and sister/wife), fits of rage, and disastrously planned military expeditions (against Ethiopia and the Oasis of Ammon).
3. The Revolt of the Magi (The False Smerdis): While Cambyses is away, two Magi brothers revolt. One, Gaumata, impersonates Cambyses’ murdered brother Smerdis and usurps the Persian throne, highlighting instability within the empire.
4. The Conspiracy of the Seven: Upon Cambyses’ death (from an accidental wound), seven Persian nobles, including Darius, conspire to expose the imposter and overthrow the Magi usurper, restoring Persian control.
5. The Debate on Government: Following the overthrow of the Magi, Herodotus includes a famous (though likely anachronistic) debate among the seven conspirators (Otanes, Megabyzus, and Darius) regarding the best form of government: democracy, oligarchy, or monarchy. Darius’s argument for monarchy ultimately prevails.
6. Darius Becomes King: The book recounts the (likely legendary) story of how Darius cleverly ensured his horse neighed first at sunrise, thereby winning the throne according to the conspirators’ agreement.
7. Darius Organizes the Empire: This book highlights Darius the Great’s early reign, focusing on his crucial reorganization of the vast Persian Empire into satrapies (provinces) with fixed systems of tribute and administration.
8. The Story of Polycrates of Samos: This famous digression tells the story of the extraordinarily fortunate tyrant Polycrates. His attempt to ward off divine jealousy by discarding his most prized possession fails spectacularly, leading to his eventual capture and gruesome death. Thus, the story serves as a powerful cautionary tale about hubris and the instability of fortune.

 

Herodotus: The Fourth Book, Entitled Melpomene

Map of the European Scythian campaign of Darius I

(Wiki Image By anton Gutsunaev, traduction GrandEscogriffe – File:DariusScythes ru.svg, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=101702352) 

 

Reconstructed map of the world based on the writings of Herodotus

(Wikimedia This file is from the Mechanical Curator collection, a set of over 1 million images scanned from out-of-copyright books and released to Flickr Commons by the British Library. View image on FlickrView all images from bookView catalogue entry for book., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37643792) 

Herodotus Melpomene Quotes

Here are some significant quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 4, Melpomene. This book primarily focuses on Darius the Great’s expedition against the Scythians and includes extensive ethnographic descriptions of Scythia and Libya (North Africa).

1. “[The Scythians] have planned their affairs… wisely… having neither cities nor forts, and carrying their dwellings with them… accustomed, moreover, one and all, to shoot from horseback; and living not by husbandry but on their cattle, their dwellings being wagons, — how should they not be invincible and impossible to approach?”
   • Source: Book 4, Section 46
   • Context: Herodotus explains the nature of the Scythian people and their nomadic lifestyle.
   • Significance: This quote perfectly captures Herodotus’s understanding of why the Scythians were so tricky for the settled Persian Empire to conquer. Their mobility and lack of fixed targets rendered traditional siege warfare useless, highlighting the clash between nomadic and settled societies.
2. “[The Scythian message to Darius, sending gifts of a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows, was interpreted:] ‘Unless you Persians become birds and fly up into the sky, or mice and hide yourself in the earth, or frogs and leap into the lakes, you will never return home, but will be shot by these arrows.'”
   • Source: Book 4, Sections 131-132
   • Context: The Scythians send symbolic gifts to Darius during his frustrating invasion, which Darius initially misinterprets, but one of his advisors correctly deciphers the defiant message.
   • Significance: A famous example of symbolic communication and Scythian defiance. It encapsulates their strategy: They cannot be conquered directly and will wear down the invader.
3. “Hitherto the Samians had been ready to obey all the orders of the Persians… But now they thought it a grand thing to save Ionia…”
   • Source: Book 4, Section 138
   • Context: Describing the debate among the Ionian Greek commanders guarding the bridge over the Danube River during Darius’s retreat from Scythia. Miltiades (later hero of Marathon) urges them to destroy the bridge and trap Darius, but Histiaeus of Miletus persuades them to wait.
   • Significance: This crucial moment foreshadows the later Ionian Revolt against Persia. It shows the divided loyalties and emerging resistance among the Greek subjects of Persia.
4. “The Scythians… take some of this hemp-seed [cannabis], and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Grecian vapour-bath can  exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy…”  
   • Source: Book 4, Section 75
   • Context: Part of Herodotus’s detailed description of Scythian customs, specifically their purification rituals after funerals.
   • Significance: This is one of the earliest written accounts of inhaling cannabis vapor for ritualistic or recreational purposes. It exemplifies Herodotus’s detailed ethnographic interest.
5. “When their king dies, they dig a great square pit… [they bury him with] one of his concubines, strangled, his cup-bearer, his cook, his groom, his lackey, his messenger… horses… and firstlings of all his other possessions…” (Paraphrased summary)
   • Source: Book 4, Section 71
   • Context: Describe the elaborate and brutal royal burial practices of the Scythians.
   • Significance: This is another striking example of Herodotus’s detailed ethnographic reporting. It highlights customs vastly different from Greek practices and provides valuable (though potentially exaggerated) anthropological information.
6. “Respecting the regions that lie beyond the countries mentioned, it is impossible to obtain any certain information… No one has any exact knowledge.”
   • Source: Book 4, Section 16
   • Context: Herodotus is discussing the lands north of Scythia.
   • Significance: This passage shows Herodotus acknowledging the limits of his knowledge and inquiry, an essential aspect of his historical method. He distinguishes between what he has heard or seen and what is unknown.
7. “Libya is washed on all sides by the sea except where it joins Asia…”
   • Source: Book 4, Section 42
   • Context: Introducing his section on Libya (North Africa), discussing attempts to circumnavigate it.
   • Significance: This sets the stage for his geographical and ethnographical descriptions of North Africa, demonstrating the breadth of his inquiries beyond the immediate Greco-Persian world.

These quotes from Book 4 (Melpomene) illustrate Herodotus’s focus on the Scythian campaign, his fascination with nomadic cultures and exotic lands (Scythia and Libya), his detailed ethnographic descriptions, and the recurring themes of cultural clash and the limits of imperial power.

 

Herodotus Melpomene Table

Here is a table summarizing the key sections, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 4, Melpomene. This book is primarily dedicated to Scythia and Libya (North Africa).

Major Topic / Section	Key Subjects Covered / Examples	Herodotus’s Approach / Key Observations or Claims	Key Themes / Significance
1. Scythian Geography & Origins	– Geography of Scythia (rivers like Ister/Danube, Borysthenes/Dnieper; vast plains). <br> – Legendary origins of the Scythians (e.g., descendants of Heracles, Targitaus).	– Geographical descriptions based on available accounts. <br> – Reporting of various origin myths without definitively choosing one.	– Sets the physical stage for Darius’s campaign. <br> – Emphasizes the land’s vast, open, and relatively unknown nature. <br> – Inclusion of myth alongside geography.
2. Scythian Ethnography (Customs & Culture)	– Nomadic Lifestyle: Living in wagons and relying on cattle. <br> – Warfare: Skilled mounted archers, retreat strategy, guerrilla tactics. <br> – Religion: Pantheon of gods (often equated with Greek gods), lack of temples/altars. <br> – Rituals: Oaths involving blood, elaborate royal burial practices with human/animal sacrifice. <br> – Unique Customs: Use of cannabis vapor baths, scalping enemies.	– Detailed descriptions based primarily on accounts gathered (from Greeks, possibly Scythians). <br> – Emphasis on customs perceived as unique or different from Greek norms. <br> – Expresses wonder at certain practices. <br> – Observation: “[The Scythians]… how should they not be invincible…?”	– Provides invaluable (though potentially biased or exaggerated) ethnographic information on nomadic cultures. <br> – Highlights the clash between nomadic and settled societies. <br> – Reinforces the idea of Scythian resilience and military effectiveness.
3. Darius’s Scythian Expedition	– Darius’s motivations (revenge, expansion). <br> – Construction of a bridge over the Ister (Danube). <br> – Invasion of Scythia. <br> – Scythian strategy: Scorched earth, constant retreat, avoiding pitched battle, harassing Persians. <br> – Darius’s frustration and pursuit deep into Scythian territory. <br> – Symbolic messages (bird, mouse, frog, arrows). <br> – Debate among Ionian Greeks at the Danube bridge (should they trap Darius?). <br> – Darius’s rugged retreat and escape.	– Narrative history based on available accounts. <br> – Focuses on the clash of military strategies. <br> – Emphasizes the difficulties faced by the large, conventional Persian army against elusive nomads.	– The main historical narrative of Book 4. <br> – Illustrates the limits of Persian imperial power against unconventional enemies and challenging geography. <br> – Explores themes of hubris (Darius) and strategic wisdom (Scythians). <br> – Foreshadows later Greek resistance.
4. Geography of Libya (North Africa)	– Description of the lands west of Egypt. <br> – Coastal regions, interior deserts, different climatic zones. <br> – Discussion of attempts to circumnavigate Africa.	– Geographical descriptions based on accounts gathered, likely less from direct observation than Egypt. <br> – Acknowledges the limits of geographical knowledge.	– Expands Herodotus’s geographical scope to another part of the known world. <br> – Provides information on the Greek understanding of North Africa.
5. Libyan Ethnography	– Descriptions of numerous Libyan tribes (nomadic and settled – e.g., Nasamones, Garamantes, Atlantes, Lotus-eaters). <br> – Their diverse customs, diets, warfare methods. <br> – Descriptions of animals found in Libya.	– Reporting accounts heard about various peoples, sometimes including fantastical elements. <br> – Comparison of customs.	– Continues Herodotus’s ethnographic project. <br> – Preserves information (and Greek perceptions) about North African peoples.
6. Greek Colonization (Cyrene)	– Story of the founding of the Greek colony of Cyrene in Libya, including the role of the Delphic Oracle and the challenges faced by the colonists.	– Narrative based on Greek traditions and stories.	– Explains the Greek presence in North Africa and its origins.
7. Persian Involvement in Libya	– Limited Persian campaigns and interactions in Libya, often linked to events in Egypt or Cyrene (e.g., expedition against Barca).	– Brief historical accounts connecting Libya to the broader Persian Empire narrative.	– Ties the Libyan digression to the Persian power and expansion theme.

Export to Sheets

This table provides a structured overview of the main components of Herodotus’s Book 4, Melpomene. It highlights the dual focus on Scythia and Libya, the detailed ethnographic descriptions, the central narrative of Darius’s failed Scythian campaign, and the recurring themes of cultural comparison, geography’s influence, and the limits of imperial power. The format allows for a clear understanding of the book’s structure and diverse content.

 

Herodotus Melpomene Highlights

Here are the significant highlights of Herodotus’s Book 4, Melpomene:

1. Darius’s Failed Scythian Expedition: The central historical narrative details the massive Persian invasion of Scythia led by Darius the Great. It chronicles the immense logistical challenges, the frustrating pursuit of an elusive enemy, and the campaign’s ultimate failure, demonstrating the limits of Persian imperial power against nomadic peoples and harsh geography.
2. Scythian Nomadic Strategy and Lifestyle: Herodotus provides a compelling explanation for Scythian “invincibility,” focusing on their nomadic lifestyle (living in wagons, lacking fixed cities), their mastery of mounted archery, and their effective military strategy of avoiding pitched battles, employing scorched-earth tactics, and using strategic retreats to exhaust their enemy.
3. Rich Scythian Ethnography: The book contains extensive and fascinating (though not always historically verifiable) descriptions of Scythian culture and customs. Highlights include their complex royal burial rituals involving human and animal sacrifice, unique methods of making oaths, reverence for certain gods (often equated with Greek ones), and the famous account of their use of cannabis vapor baths.
4. Exploration of Libya (North Africa): Herodotus shifts focus to provide a detailed ethnographic and geographic survey of the peoples inhabiting North Africa west of Egypt. He describes numerous tribes (both nomadic and settled, like the Lotus-eaters), their diverse customs, the region’s climate, and its distinctive wildlife.
5. Greek Colonization Narrative: Includes the traditional story of the founding of the important Greek colony of Cyrene in Libya, involving oracles from Delphi and the challenges faced by the early settlers.
6. Acknowledging Geographical Limits: Herodotus discusses the geography of the known world, including attempts to understand the course of major rivers and the shape of continents (like the circumnavigation of Africa), while also frankly admitting the limits of knowledge regarding the distant northern regions beyond Scythia.

In essence, Book 4 (Melpomene) stands out for its deep dive into nomadic cultures, particularly the Scythians, contrasting them with the settled Persian Empire. It’s a book about the clash of civilizations, the influence of geography on culture and warfare, and the vast, diverse world known (and unknown) to the Greeks, all woven around the central narrative of Darius’s challenging Scythian campaign.

 

Herodotus: The Fifth Book, Entitled Terpsichore

The burning of Sardis by the Greeks during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BC.

(Wiki Image By George Derville Rowlandson – Internet Archive identifier: hutchinsonsstory00londuoft Hutchinson’s History of the Nations, Volume I (Published 1915), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=75207820) 

 

Modern bust of Cleisthenes, known as “the father of Athenian democracy“, on view at the Ohio Statehouse, Columbus, Ohio

(Wiki Image By http://www.ohiochannel.org/, Attribution, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6207775) 

 

Herodotus Terpsichore Quotes

Here are some significant quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 5, Terpsichore. This book primarily details the events leading up to and the beginning stages of the Ionian Revolt against Persian rule, along with essential digressions on the history of Athens and Sparta.

1. “[Cleomenes asks Aristagoras how far Susa is from the sea] …Aristagoras… told the truth and said it was a three months’ journey. Cleomenes cut him short… ‘Milesian guest-friend, leave Sparta before sunset; for you speak no welcome words to Lacedaemonians, desiring to lead them a three months’ journey from the sea.'”
   • Source: Book 5, Section 50
   • Context: Aristagoras of Miletus tries to persuade King Cleomenes of Sparta to support the Ionian Revolt by describing the riches of Persia. Cleomenes, however, is deterred by the immense distance inland to the Persian capital.
   • Significance: Illustrates Spartan pragmatism and reluctance to engage in distant overseas campaigns. It contrasts sharply with the Athenian response.
2. “[As Aristagoras attempts to bribe Cleomenes] …his daughter Gorgo, who was standing by him… cried out: ‘Father, your guest-friend will corrupt you, if you do not leave him and go.'”
   • Source: Book 5, Section 51
   • Context: The young Gorgo (later wife of Leonidas) interrupts Aristagoras’s attempt to bribe her father, King Cleomenes.
   • Significance: This is a famous anecdote often cited to show Gorgo’s wisdom even as a child and perhaps highlight Spartan incorruptibility (at least in this instance).
3. “It seems indeed to be easier to deceive a multitude than one man, for Aristagoras, unable to deceive Cleomenes of Lacedaemon, one single man, yet succeeded with thirty thousand Athenians.”
   • Source: Book 5, Section 97
   • Context: Herodotus reflects on Aristagoras’s success in persuading the Athenian assembly to send ships to aid the Ionian Revolt after failing to persuade the single Spartan king.
   • Significance: Herodotus’s famous, somewhat cynical commentary on the nature of democratic decision-making versus monarchical decision-making.
4. “These ships [sent by Athens and Eretria] were the beginning of evils for Greeks and barbarians.”
   • Source: Book 5, Section 97
   • Context: Herodotus’s direct judgment on the Athenian decision to intervene in the Ionian Revolt by sending twenty ships (later joined by five from Eretria).
   • Significance: This is a crucial statement highlighting Herodotus’s view that this Athenian involvement was the root cause that ultimately drew mainland Greece into direct conflict with the Persian Empire, leading to the major invasions described later in his work.
5. “[When Darius heard of the burning of Sardis by the Ionians and Athenians]… he first, they say, asked who the Athenians were… Then he called for his bow… shot an arrow into the air, and prayed, ‘O Zeus, grant me vengeance on the Athenians!’ He charged one of his servants… to say to him three times whenever dinner was set before him, ‘Master, remember the Athenians.'”
   • Source: Book 5, Section 105
   • Context: King Darius’s reaction upon learning that Athenians had participated in the burning of Sardis, the capital of his Lydian satrapy.
   • Significance: A vivid anecdote illustrating Darius’s anger, his determination for revenge specifically against Athens, and setting the stage for the later Persian invasions of mainland Greece.
6. “[On the reforms of Cleisthenes in Athens:] By these changes the Athenians grew powerful…” (Paraphrased summary)
   • Source: Book 5, Section 66 & 78
   • Context: Part of Herodotus’s digression on Athenian history, describing the democratic reforms Cleisthenes implemented after the tyrants’ expulsion.
   • Significance: Herodotus directly links Athens’s growing strength and confidence to its democratic reforms, suggesting that freedom and self-governance foster power.

These quotes from Book 5 (Terpsichore) capture the crucial events leading to the Greco-Persian Wars: the complex causes of the Ionian Revolt, the contrasting reactions of Sparta and Athens, the significant escalation caused by the burning of Sardis, and Darius’s resulting focus on punishing Athens. They also show Herodotus’s insights into political decision-making and the importance he placed on Athens’s democratic development.

 

Herodotus Terpsichore Table

Here is a table summarizing the key sections, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 5, Terpsichore. This book primarily focuses on the Ionian Revolt against Persia and includes significant digressions into Athenian and Spartan history.

Major Topic / Narrative Arc	Key Figures / Peoples Involved	Summary of Content / Key Events	Key Themes / Significance
1. Persian Expansion in Thrace/Macedonia	Darius, Megabazus, Otanes (Persian commanders), Thracians, Macedonians, Paeonians, Histiaeus of Miletus	Following the Scythian campaign, Persians under Megabazus consolidated control over Thrace and received submission from Macedonia. Histiaeus is honored by Darius but summoned/detained at Susa. Otanes continued conquests in the Hellespontine region.	Shows continued Persian expansion towards Greece; Histiaeus was removed from Ionia, setting the stage for Aristagoras’s actions.
2. Aristagoras & the Naxos Expedition	Aristagoras (Tyrant of Miletus), exiled Naxians, Artaphernes (Persian satrap), Megabates (Persian commander)	Aristagoras persuades Artaphernes to support an expedition to restore Naxian exiles, hoping to gain control of Naxos and the surrounding islands. The joint Persian-Ionian expedition fails due to poor leadership (Megabates revealing the plan) and Naxian preparedness.	Aristagoras’s ambition and subsequent failure create a crisis for him, motivating him to instigate the Ionian Revolt to save himself from Persian punishment.
3. Instigation of the Ionian Revolt	Aristagoras, Histiaeus (via secret message), Milesians, other Ionians	Fearing repercussions, Aristagoras (prompted by Histiaeus’s secret message urging revolt) persuades Miletus and other Ionian cities to rebel against Persian rule. Aristagoras lays down his tyranny to encourage democratic support for the revolt.	The immediate cause of the Ionian Revolt. Highlights personal motives intertwining with broader desires for freedom from Persian control. The shift from tyranny to democracy in Ionian cities is noted.
4. Seeking Aid from Mainland Greece	Aristagoras, Cleomenes I (King of Sparta), Gorgo (Cleomenes’ daughter), Spartans, Athenian Assembly, Eretrians	Aristagoras traveled to Sparta but failed to persuade Cleomenes (deterred by the distance to Persia). He then traveled to Athens and persuaded the democratic assembly to send aid. Eretria also agreed to help.	It contrasts Spartan caution with Athenian willingness to intervene. Herodotus’s famous commentary, “It seems indeed to be easier to deceive a multitude than one man…” introduces crucial mainland Greek involvement.
5. Athenian Intervention & Burning of Sardis	Athenians, Eretrians, Ionians, Artaphernes, Darius	Athenian (20 ships) and Eretrian (5 ships) forces join the Ionians. Herodotus: “These ships were the beginning of evils for Greeks and barbarians.” The combined force marches inland and burns Sardis (Lydian capital), though the citadel holds.	This is a major escalation of the conflict. It directly involves Athens against Persia, infuriating Darius and providing the primary casus belli for the later Persian invasions of Greece. Darius vows revenge: “Master, remember the Athenians.”
6. Spread & Early Stages of Revolt	Persians, Ionians, Cypriots, Carians, Onesilus (Cyprus), and Aristagoras	The revolt spread to Cyprus, Caria, and other regions. Persians begin counter-offensives, winning key battles (especially at sea). Aristagoras fled Miletus and was later killed campaigning in Thrace.	Shows the initial spread and subsequent challenges faced by the rebels and Aristagoras’ ignominious end.
7. Digression: Athenian History (Tyranny to Democracy)	Pisistratus, Hippias, Hipparchus, Harmodius, Aristogeiton, Cleisthenes, Isagoras, Cleomenes I	Detailed account of the rule of the Pisistratid tyrants in Athens, their eventual overthrow (murder of Hipparchus, expulsion of Hippias). Political struggle between Isagoras and Cleisthenes. Cleisthenes’ democratic reforms (new tribes, Council of 500, ostracism). Athenian conflict with Sparta and neighbors.	Crucial background on Athens. Explains the development of Athenian democracy, which Herodotus links to Athens’ growing power and confidence. Provides context for Athens’ decision to aid the Ionians.
8. Digression: Spartan History & Affairs	Cleomenes I, Demaratus (Spartan kings)	Stories about King Cleomenes’ interventions in Athens, his character, and later madness/death. Rivalry between the two Spartan kings. Brief mentions of Spartan institutions.	This section provides context on Sparta, Athens’s main rival, its leadership, and its internal dynamics during this period.

Export to Sheets

This table structure follows the main narrative thread of the Ionian Revolt in Book 5, Terpsichore, while also incorporating the significant digressions into Athenian and Spartan history that Herodotus uses to provide context and comparison. It highlights this crucial book’s key events, figures, and thematic developments leading to the central Greco-Persian conflict.

 

Herodotus Terpsichore Highlights

Here are the key highlights from Herodotus’s Book 5, Terpsichore:

1. The Ionian Revolt: The central theme is the outbreak of the revolt (starting around 499 BC) by the Greek cities of Ionia against Persian rule. Herodotus details its origins, focusing on the actions of Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus.
2. Aristagoras’s Role: The book heavily features Aristagoras, first detailing his failed expedition against Naxos (undertaken with Persian support) and then showing how, fearing Persian repercussions, he instigated the Ionian Revolt, even laying down his tyranny to encourage democratic support.
3. Seeking Aid – Sparta vs. Athens: A famous section describes Aristagoras seeking military aid from mainland Greece. He fails to persuade the cautious Spartan King Cleomenes I (deterred by the great distance to Persia), but successfully convinces the democratic assembly in Athens to send ships.
4. Herodotus on Democracy: Reflecting on Aristagoras’s missions, Herodotus observes that “it seems to be easier to deceive a multitude than one man,” contrasting the Athenian assembly’s decision with Cleomenes’ refusal.
5. Athenian Intervention – The “Beginning of Evils”: Athens’s decision to send 20 ships (along with 5 from Eretria) is marked by Herodotus as the “beginning of evils for Greeks and barbarians,” highlighting it as the crucial act that drew mainland Greece into direct conflict with Persia.
6. The Burning of Sardis (c. 498 BC): A major event where the combined Ionian and Athenian forces marched inland and burned Sardis, the capital of the Persian satrapy of Lydia (though they failed to capture the citadel). This act deeply angered King Darius.
7. Darius Vows Revenge: Upon learning of the burning of Sardis and, specifically, the Athenian involvement, Darius famously asked “Who are the Athenians?” and commanded a servant to remind him three times before every dinner: “Master, remember the Athenians.” This sets up the motivation for the later Persian invasions.
8. Digression on Athenian History: The book includes a significant digression on recent Athenian history, detailing the expulsion of the Pisistratid tyrants and, crucially, the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes. Herodotus strongly links the rise of Athenian power and spirit to these democratic reforms.

In essence, Book 5 (Terpsichore) explains the origins and initial stages of the Ionian Revolt, emphasizing the role of Aristagoras and the pivotal, fateful intervention of Athens, which Herodotus identifies as the root cause of the subsequent Greco-Persian Wars. The digressions on Athenian democracy provide crucial context for understanding Athens’ later role.

 

Herodotus: The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato

1900 depiction of the Battle of Marathon

(Wiki Image By John Steeple Davis – The story of the greatest nations, from the dawn of history to the twentieth century (published in 1900), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=75078967)

 

“Helmet of Miltiades”. Miltiades offered the helmet to the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Inscription on the helmet: ΜΙΛΤΙΑΔΕΣ ΑΝΕ[Θ]ΕΚΕΝ [Τ]ΟΙ ΔΙ (“Miltiades dedicates this helmet to Zeus”).

(Wiki Image By Oren Rozen – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16731424) 

 

Herodotus Erato Quotes

Here are some significant quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 6, Erato. This book covers the conclusion of the Ionian Revolt, the first Persian invasion of Greece under Darius, the pivotal Battle of Marathon, and important digressions on Spartan and Athenian politics.

1. “[The Ionian commanders at Lade argued:] ‘Our affairs hang on a razor’s edge, men of Ionia, whether we are to be free or slaves… If you are willing to endure hardship now, you will have toil for the moment, but you will be able to overcome your enemies and be free.'”
   • Source: Book 6, Section 11
   • Context: Spoken by Dionysius of Phocaea, trying to rally the disorganized and undisciplined Ionian fleet before the decisive Battle of Lade against the Persians.
   • Significance: Highlights the stakes of the Ionian Revolt – freedom versus enslavement – and the internal weaknesses (lack of discipline and unity) that ultimately led to the Ionian defeat at Lade.
2. “Thus was Miletus emptied of Milesians…”
   • Source: Book 6, Section 19
   • Context: Herodotus’s poignant description after detailing the Persian capture, sacking, and enslavement of Miletus, the leading city of the Ionian Revolt, following the defeat at Lade.
   • Significance: This marks the brutal end of the Ionian Revolt and the harsh consequences of rebellion against the Persian Empire.
3. “[Regarding the Persian heralds demanding ‘earth and water’ (submission):] …those who did not give it expected the king’s armies to be sent against them. […] …at Athens they were thrown into the Pit… at Sparta into a well, and told… to get earth and water for the king from there.” (Paraphrased summary)
   • Source: Book 6, Sections 48-49
   • Context: Describe the reaction of Greek cities to Darius’s demand for submission before the first invasion. Many complied, but Athens and Sparta offered violent defiance.
   • Significance: This shows the stark refusal of Athens and Sparta to submit to Persian authority, setting the stage for direct conflict and highlighting their distinct determination compared to other Greek states.
4. “[Miltiades urging the Polemarch Callimachus to vote for battle at Marathon:] ‘It is in your hands, Callimachus, either to enslave Athens, or, by ensuring her freedom, to leave behind for all posterity a memorial such as not even Harmodius and Aristogeiton left… If we fight before faint-heartedness tempts some Athenians… we may well win the victory.'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 6, Section 109
   • Context: The Athenian generals were split on whether to fight the Persians immediately at Marathon or to wait. Miltiades delivered this impassioned speech to convince Callimachus (who held the deciding vote) to fight now.
   • Significance: A crucial moment of decision, emphasizing the stakes (freedom vs. slavery), the potential for immortal glory, and the need for decisive action. Miltiades’s argument prevails.
5. “[At Marathon:] …the Athenians charged the barbarians at a run… they were the first Greeks we know of to charge the enemy at a run…”
   • Source: Book 6, Section 112
   • Context: Describing the Athenian tactics at the start of the Battle of Marathon.
   • Significance: Highlights the surprising and aggressive Athenian tactics, contributing to their shock victory against the numerically superior Persians.
6. “[Pheidippides reported that the god Pan had met him on his run to Sparta and] had told him to ask the Athenians why they paid him no honour… and promised he would help them.”
   • Source: Book 6, Section 105
   • Context: The story of the runner Pheidippides encountering the god Pan while seeking aid from Sparta just before Marathon. Pan asks for worship in Athens and promises aid.
   • Significance: A famous example of divine intervention or omen in Herodotus’s narrative, linking potential supernatural aid to the Athenian cause at Marathon.
7. “[On Cleomenes’s gruesome death:] …he took a knife and began to mutilate himself, slicing his flesh into strips… until he carved himself into little pieces and so died. The Greeks mostly say this happened because he induced the Pythia [at Delphi] to say what he wanted about Demaratus.”
   • Source: Book 6, Section 75
   • Context: Part of the digression on Spartan King Cleomenes I, describing his alleged madness and horrific suicide.
   • Significance: It illustrates the dramatic and often grim nature of Herodotus’s digressions about internal Greek politics, highlighting themes of divine retribution, madness, and instability even within influential figures.

These quotes from Book 6 (Erato) capture the drama of the suppression of the Ionian Revolt, the defiance of Athens and Sparta, the crucial decisions and events surrounding the Battle of Marathon, and the complex internal politics of the Greek states on the eve of the major Persian invasions.

 

Herodotus Erato Table

Here is a table summarizing the key sections, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 6, Erato. This book focuses on the aftermath of the Ionian Revolt, the first Persian invasion of Greece, and the pivotal Battle of Marathon.

Central Topic / Narrative Arc	Key Figures / Peoples Involved	Summary of Content / Key Events	Key Themes / Significance
1. Suppression of Ionian Revolt	Ionians, Persians (Artaphernes, Datis, Histiaeus), and Dionysius of Phocaea	Persian counter-offensives; Naval Battle of Lade (494 BC): Ionian fleet defeated due to internal divisions and lack of discipline. Capture and Destruction of Miletus: The leading city of the revolt is sacked, and the inhabitants killed or enslaved. Fate of Histiaeus: Attempts to continue resistance but was captured and executed by Artaphernes.	End of the Ionian Revolt. Brutal consequences of rebellion against Persia; importance of Greek unity (or lack thereof).
2. Persian Consolidation & First Moves vs. Greece	Mardonius, Darius, Persians, Thracians, Macedonians	Mardonius re-established Persian control in Thrace and Macedonia (which submitted). Mardonius’s fleet is wrecked in a storm off Mount Athos (492 BC). Darius sends heralds demanding “earth and water” (submission) from Greek cities.	Persia prepares for direct action against mainland Greece despite setbacks and sets up the confrontation with Athens and Sparta.
3. Greek Defiance	Athenians, Spartans, Persian heralds	Many Greek cities submitted to Darius’s demand. However, Athens and Sparta defiantly refused, killing the Persian heralds (throwing them into a pit or well).	It established Athens and Sparta as resistance leaders, a clear act of defiance and provocation against the Persian Empire.
4. First Persian Invasion (Marathon Campaign)	Datis, Artaphernes (Persian commanders), Hippias (ex-Athenian tyrant), Eretrians, Athenians, Plataeans	The Persian expedition (led by Datis and Artaphernes, 490 BC) sailed across the Aegean, aiming to punish Athens and Eretria. Eretria is besieged, captured, and destroyed, its people enslaved. Persians land at Marathon Bay, guided by the aged ex-tyrant Hippias.	The first direct Persian military invasion of mainland Greece focused on punishing Athens and Eretria for their role in the Ionian Revolt.
5. Battle of Marathon (490 BC)	Miltiades, Callimachus, Athenian generals, Pheidippides, Pan (god), Athenians, Plataeans, Datis, Artaphernes, Persians	Athenians (joined by Plataeans) march to Marathon. Debate among Athenian generals; Miltiades persuades Polemarch Callimachus to fight immediately. The story of Pheidippides’s run to Sparta (and encounter with Pan). Athenians charge the Persians at a run; fierce battle; decisive Athenian/Plataean victory.	Pivotal Greek victory against a more significant Persian force. It was a huge boost to Athenian morale and prestige. Demonstrates effectiveness of hoplite infantry. Halts the first Persian invasion. Explores themes of courage, strategy, freedom, and divine favor.
6. Aftermath of Marathon	Persians, Athenians, Miltiades	The Persian fleet sails towards Athens but withdraws upon seeing that the Athenian army has returned. Miltiades led a later failed expedition against Paros, was wounded, tried, and fined, and died shortly after.	It secures the victory, illustrates the changeable fortunes of leaders (Miltiades’s downfall after triumph), and suggests potential hubris.
7. Digression: Spartan Politics	Cleomenes I, Demaratus (Spartan kings), Leotychides	Conflicts between the two Spartan kings; Cleomenes engineers the deposition of Demaratus (using a bribed oracle); Demaratus flees to Persia. Cleomenes’ later erratic behavior, interventions elsewhere (Aegina), madness, and gruesome suicide.	This book provides crucial background on Spartan leadership and internal instability during this period. It explains Demaratus’s later presence with Xerxes and explores madness and divine retribution themes.
8. Digression: Athenian Politics	Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides	Briefly discusses the political situation in Athens following Marathon, including the trial and death of Miltiades and the emerging rivalry between Themistocles and Aristides.	Sets the stage for Athenian political developments leading up to the second Persian invasion (covered in later books).

Export to Sheets

This table provides a structured overview of the main components of Herodotus’s Book 6, Erato. It covers the conclusion of the Ionian Revolt, Athens and Sparta’s defiant response to Persian demands, the detailed account of the first Persian invasion culminating in the Battle of Marathon, and important insights into the internal politics of the leading Greek states.

 

Herodotus Erato Highlights

Here are the key highlights from Herodotus’s Book 6, Erato:

1. End of the Ionian Revolt: This book details the final suppression of the Ionian Revolt, including the decisive Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade (c. 494 BC), largely due to Ionian disunity, and the subsequent brutal capture and destruction of Miletus, the leading city of the rebellion.
2. Athenian and Spartan Defiance: Before launching the invasion of mainland Greece, Darius sent heralds demanding “earth and water” (tokens of submission). Many Greek states comply, but Athens and Sparta famously refuse, killing the Persian heralds in a dramatic act of defiance.
3. First Persian Invasion & Marathon Campaign: The book focuses on Darius’s first major punitive expedition against mainland Greece (490 BC), led by Datis and Artaphernes. This includes the capture and destruction of Eretria before the Persian forces landed at Marathon.
4. The Battle of Marathon (490 BC): This is the centerpiece of Book 6. Highlights include:
   • There is debate among the Athenian generals on whether to fight.
   • Miltiades’s crucial speech persuading the Polemarch Callimachus to vote for immediate battle.
   • The story of the runner Pheidippides encountering the god Pan while seeking (ultimately delayed) aid from Sparta.
   • The innovative Athenian tactic was to charge the Persian lines at a run.
   • The decisive victory of the outnumbered Athenians (with Plataean allies) over the Persians.
5. Spartan Internal Politics (Digression): Herodotus includes a significant digression detailing the intense rivalry and conflict between the two Spartan kings, Cleomenes I and Demaratus. This includes Cleomenes engineering Demaratus’s deposition (using a bribed oracle) and Demaratus’s subsequent exile to Persia, as well as Cleomenes’s own eventual madness and gruesome suicide.
6. Miltiades’s Downfall: Despite being the hero of Marathon, Miltiades led a subsequent, failed expedition against the island of Paros. Upon his return, he is put on trial, fined heavily, and dies shortly after from a wound sustained during the expedition. This serves as a classic Herodotus example of the instability of fortune.

Book 6 (Erato) bridges the gap between the failed Ionian Revolt and the major Greco-Persian Wars. It details the first Persian attempt to punish Athens, resulting in the iconic Athenian victory at Marathon. It also delves into the complex internal politics of Athens and Sparta, setting the stage for future conflicts.

 

Herodotus Erato Highlights Marathon

While Erato is the muse of lyric poetry and love poetry in Greek mythology, in Herodotus’s context, Erato is the name traditionally given to the Sixth Book of his Histories. This book contains his primary account of the Battle of Marathon.

Here are some of the highlights from Herodotus’s account of the Battle of Marathon in Book VI (Erato):

• The Persian Invasion Force: Herodotus details the Persian expedition led by Datis and Artaphernes, sent by Darius I to punish Athens and Eretria for their involvement in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. He mentions the size of the Persian fleet and army, although modern historians often debate these numbers.
• The Role of Hippias: Herodotus highlights the presence of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias with the Persian forces, suggesting his intention was to be reinstated as ruler of Athens.
• The Athenian and Plataean Forces: He describes the relatively small Greek army that marched out to meet the Persians at Marathon, consisting primarily of Athenians and a contingent from Plataea. He also notes the lack of Spartan support (due to a religious festival).
• Miltiades’ Leadership: Herodotus emphasizes the crucial role of the Athenian general Miltiades in persuading the other Athenian generals to engage the Persians. His strategic insight and decisive action are portrayed as key to Greece’s victory.
• The Battle Formation and Tactics: Herodotus describes the Athenian battle formation, with a strengthened wing and a deliberately weakened center, a tactic attributed to Miltiades. He recounts the swift Athenian charge against the Persian lines, surprising the Persians, who were unprepared for such an aggressive attack.
• The Greek Victory: Herodotus vividly narrates the Greek triumph, with the Athenian and Plataean forces routing the Persian wings. They then turned inwards to defeat the Persian center, forcing the remaining Persians to flee to their ships.
• Casualties: Herodotus provides specific (though debated) casualty figures for both sides: approximately 6,400 Persians killed compared to 192 Athenians and 11 Plataeans.
• The Legend of Pheidippides: While the direct, famous story of Pheidippides running to Athens to announce the victory and then dying isn’t explicitly detailed in Herodotus in the way later tradition tells it, Herodotus does mention a runner named Pheidippides who was sent to Sparta to request aid before the battle.
• The Arrival of the Spartans: Herodotus notes that a Spartan force did arrive after the battle, expressing their admiration for the Athenian achievement.
• The Significance of the Victory: Herodotus implicitly highlights the immense significance of the Battle of Marathon as a crucial early victory for the Greeks against the mighty Persian Empire. The victory demonstrated that the Persians were not invincible and boosted Greek morale.

In summary, Herodotus’s Book VI (Erato) provides the primary historical account of the Battle of Marathon, emphasizing Athenian courage, Miltiades’s strategic brilliance, and the surprising victory of a smaller Greek force against the invading Persians.

 

Herodotus: The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia

The rock relief of Xerxes I, found in Persepolis, is kept at the National Museum of Iran.

(Wiki Image By Darafsh – Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=41965467) 

 

Herm of Themistocles (1875 illustration)

(Wiki Image By Evald Hansen – own scan, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11587213) 

 

Jacques-Louis David painted Leonidas at Thermopylae (1814). In the aftermath of the French Revolution, David chose the subject as a model of “civic duty and self-sacrifice” and as a contemplation of loss and death, with Leonidas quietly poised and heroically nude.

(Wiki Image By Jacques-Louis David – Source, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=72341280) 

Herodotus Polymnia Quotes

Here are some significant quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 7, Polymnia. This book details Xerxes’ decision to invade Greece, the massive preparations, the crossing of the Hellespont, and the march towards Greece, setting the stage for the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium.

1. “[Xerxes justifying the invasion:] ‘I have decided… to bridge the Hellespont and march an army through Europe against Greece, that I may punish the Athenians for all the wrongs they have done to the Persians and to my father [Darius].'”
   • Source: Book 7, Section 8
   • Context: Xerxes addresses his council of Persian nobles and outlines his motivations for the invasion.
   • Significance: This clearly states the official Persian justification: punishment for Athens’ involvement in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and the continuation of Darius’s plans.
2. “[Artabanus warning Xerxes:] ‘O King,… Seest thou how God with his lightning smites always the bigger animals, and will not suffer them to wax insolent… while the little ones do not provoke him? […] even so is it God’s wont to cut short all things that grow too great. […] Haste is ever the parent of failure.'” (Paraphrased for clarity) 
   • Source: Book 7, Section 10
   • Context: Xerxes’s wise uncle, Artabanus, advises caution and warns against the dangers of hubris and over-ambition in undertaking such a massive expedition against the distant Greeks.
   • Significance: A classic expression of Greek tragic themes within the Persian court – a warning against excessive pride (hubris) and the potential for divine retribution against those who overreach. Artabanus acts as a voice of cautious wisdom.
3. “[Xerxes reacting to the storm destroying his first Hellespont bridge:] he bade them scourge the Hellespont with three hundred lashes and let down into the sea a pair of fetters… [and say] ‘Thou bitter water, thy lord lays this punishment upon thee…'”
   • Source: Book 7, Section 35
   • Context: Xerxes’s enraged and impious reaction to a storm destroying his newly built bridges across the Hellespont.
   • Significance: This is a famous example of Xerxes’s perceived hubris, arrogance, and defiance of nature (and potentially the gods), foreshadowing his later difficulties.
4. “[Xerxes weeping while reviewing his vast army:] ‘There came upon me a sudden pity, when I thought of the shortness of man’s life, seeing that of all this host, so numerous as it is, not one will be alive when a hundred years are gone by.'”
   • Source: Book 7, Section 46
   • Context: Xerxes, surveying his immense forces at Abydos before crossing into Europe, is overcome by a moment of reflection on human mortality.
   • Significance: A moment of philosophical reflection attributed to the Great King, contrasting the scale of his power with the fragility of individual human life. It adds depth to his character beyond simple tyranny.
5. “[Demaratus, the exiled Spartan king, warning Xerxes about the Spartans:] ‘Poverty has always been native to Greece, but courage they have acquired, through wisdom and the strength of law… [The Spartans] will accept battle with you even if all the other Greeks are on your side… never will they accept terms from you which would bring slavery to Greece.'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 7, Sections 102 & 104
   • Context: Xerxes questions Demaratus about whether the Greeks will dare to resist his overwhelming force. Demaratus explains the Greek love of freedom and predicts the Spartans’ fierce resistance.
   • Significance: A key passage contrasting Persian autocratic might with the Greek concept of freedom under law (nomos). It foreshadows the determined resistance the Persians will face, particularly at Thermopylae.
6. “[The Oracle at Delphi advising the Athenians:] ‘Yet Zeus grants… a wooden wall, which alone shall be uncaptured, a blessing to you and your children.'”
   • Source: Book 7, Section 141
   • Context: One of the ambiguous prophecies given to the Athenians when they consulted the Delphic Oracle about the impending Persian invasion.
   • Significance: This famous oracle led to intense debate in Athens, with some interpreting the “wooden wall” as the Acropolis palisade and others (notably Themistocles) arguing it meant their fleet of ships. The latter interpretation proved crucial to the eventual Greek victory.
7. “My business is to record what people say, but I am by no means bound to believe it – and that may be taken to apply to my whole History.”
   • Source: Book 7, Section 152
   • Context: Herodotus is discussing the story of the Argives potentially medizing (siding with Persia).
   • Significance: Although this famous statement about his methodology appears here, it reflects his general approach throughout the work. It shows his commitment to reporting different traditions while maintaining a degree of critical distance.

These quotes from Book 7 (Polymnia) capture the immense scale of Xerxes’s preparations, the warnings against hubris, the clash of cultures represented by Xerxes and Demaratus, the role of oracles, and the looming sense of conflict as the massive Persian force marches towards Greece.

 

Herodotus Polymnia Table

Okay, here is a table summarizing the key sections, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 7, Polymnia. This book details the massive preparations and the beginning of Xerxes’ invasion of Greece.

Major Topic / Narrative Arc	Key Figures / Peoples Involved	Summary of Content / Key Events	Key Themes / Significance
1. Accession & Decision to Invade	Darius, Xerxes, Mardonius, Artabanus, Dreams/Omens	Death of Darius; Xerxes becomes King of Persia. His initial reluctance to invade Greece is overcome by Mardonius’s persuasion (seeking personal gain) and seemingly divine encouragement through dreams, despite strong warnings against hubris and overreach from his uncle Artabanus.	It establishes Xerxes’ motivations (revenge for Marathon, ambition, divine will). It introduces the crucial theme of hubris vs. wise counsel (Artabanus) and the role of dreams and omens in decision-making.
2. Massive Preparations	Xerxes, Persians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Subject Nations, Engineers	Years of elaborate preparations for the invasion: <br> – Digging the Athos Canal: A canal cut through the Mount Athos peninsula to avoid the treacherous coastline where Mardonius’s fleet was previously wrecked. <br> – Bridging the Hellespont: Construction of massive pontoon bridges across the strait separating Asia and Europe.	It emphasizes the immense scale of the Persian undertaking, the vast resources available to Xerxes, and his determination to overcome natural obstacles, which borders on hubris.
3. Xerxes’ Hubris & Power Display	Xerxes, Hellespont (personified)	A storm destroys the first set of Hellespont bridges. Xerxes, enraged, orders the Hellespont to be whipped 300 times, have fetters thrown into it, and be branded, while insulting the water. The bridges are rebuilt.	This is a famous example of Xerxes’ hubris, arrogance, and perceived impiety (challenging nature/divinity). It demonstrates the Persian monarch’s absolute and potentially irrational power.
4. Catalogue of Forces	Xerxes, Persians, Medes, Cissians, Hyrcanians, Assyrians, Bactrians, Indians, Ethiopians, Libyans, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Ionians, dozens more…	This detailed, lengthy ethnographic and military list describes the diverse nations, dress, equipment, and commanders within Xerxes’s enormous land army and powerful navy.	It emphasizes the vastness and multi-ethnic character of the Persian Empire, serves as an impressive display of Persian power and reach, and provides invaluable (though potentially exaggerated) ethnographic details.
5. Crossing the Hellespont & Review	Xerxes, Persian Army and Navy	The dramatic crossing of the Hellespont from Asia into Europe over the bridges of boats took seven days and nights. Xerxes reviewed his forces at Abydos and famously wept upon reflecting on the vast numbers and the shortness of human life.	Marks the physical start of the invasion of Europe; the weeping scene adds a layer of human reflection (contemplation of mortality) to Xerxes’s character amidst his display of overwhelming power.
6. Dialogue with Demaratus	Xerxes, Demaratus (exiled Spartan king)	Xerxes questions Demaratus about whether the Greeks will dare to resist his overwhelming force. Demaratus explains the Greek character, particularly the Spartan dedication to law (nomos) and freedom, predicting they will fight fiercely regardless of numbers. Xerxes initially dismisses this.	Crucial clash of cultures and ideologies: Persian autocracy and belief in power through numbers versus Greek dedication to freedom under law. Foreshadows the nature of the upcoming conflict and Greek resolve. Highlights the “otherness” of Spartan discipline.
7. March Through Thrace & Macedonia	Xerxes, Persian Army, Thracians, Macedonians	The massive army marched westward through Thrace and Macedonia, consuming vast resources (“drinking rivers dry”); local tribes submitted or were subjugated.	Details the logistical scale and immense impact of the invasion force on the lands it passes through.
8. Greek Response & Preparations	Athenians, Spartans, other members of the Hellenic League, Delphic Oracle, Themistocles	Greeks learn of the scale of the invasion, initial panic, and division. Consultation of the Delphic Oracle yields ambiguous prophecies (including the famous “wooden wall” for Athens). Formation of the Hellenic League; decision to stand at the narrow pass of Thermopylae (land) and Artemisium (sea).	Shows the initial Greek reactions, the role of religion and oracles in decision-making, and the beginnings of a unified (though incomplete) Greek defense strategy against the overwhelming Persian force. Introduces the key defensive positions.

Export to Sheets

This table provides a structured overview of the main components of Herodotus’s Book 7, Polymnia. It covers Xerxes’s decision-making process, the immense scale of his preparations and army, key events like the crossing of the Hellespont, crucial dialogues foreshadowing the conflict, and the initial Greek responses, setting the stage perfectly for the major battles described in the following book.

 

Herodotus Polymnia Highlights

Here are the key highlights from Herodotus’s Book 7, Polymnia:

1. Xerxes’ Decision to Invade and the Persian Debate: The book opens with Xerxes inheriting the Persian throne and being persuaded (primarily by Mardonius) to invade Greece, despite the strong, cautionary warnings against hubris and overreach delivered by his wise uncle, Artabanus. This debate highlights themes of ambition, revenge, and fate.
2. Monumental Preparations: Herodotus details the immense scale of Xerxes’ preparations over several years, emphasizing the Persian Empire’s massive resources. Key examples include digging a canal through the Mount Athos peninsula (to avoid the stormy coastline that wrecked a previous fleet) and constructing massive pontoon bridges across the Hellespont.
3. Xerxes Whipping the Hellespont: One of the most famous anecdotes in The Histories. When a storm destroys the first set of bridges, Xerxes flies into a rage, ordering the Hellespont itself to be whipped 300 times, have fetters thrown into it, and be branded, while his men utter curses. This act is presented as a prime example of Xerxes’ excessive pride (hubris) and defiance of nature.
4. The Catalogue of Forces: This is a long and detailed section listing the vast array of different peoples and nations contributing troops and ships to Xerxes’s invasion force. It emphasizes the overwhelming size and diversity of the Persian army and navy, highlighting the magnitude of the threat facing the much smaller Greek states.
5. Xerxes’ Dialogue with Demaratus: Before crossing into Europe, Xerxes reviews his troops and speaks with Demaratus, the exiled Spartan king. Their conversation powerfully contrasts Xerxes’ confidence in numbers and autocratic power with Demaratus’s explanation of Greek, particularly Spartan, dedication to freedom under law (nomos) and their determination to fight fiercely, regardless of the odds.
6. The “Wooden Wall” Oracle: As the Greeks learn of the invasion, the Athenians consult the Oracle at Delphi. They receive a terrifying prophecy, followed by a second, slightly more hopeful but still ambiguous one mentioning safety behind a “wooden wall.” This led to intense debate in Athens, ultimately resolved by Themistocles’ interpretation that the “wooden wall” refers to their fleet of ships.
7. Greek Defensive Strategy: The book describes the initial meetings of the Hellenic League (the alliance of resisting Greek states) and their strategic decision to make their first stand against the Persian land forces at the narrow pass of Thermopylae and against the Persian navy in the nearby straits of Artemisium.

In essence, Book 7 (Polymnia) builds the tension for the upcoming conflict. It showcases the immense power and ambition (and hubris) of Xerxes and the Persian Empire, details the unprecedented scale of the invasion force, and outlines the Greeks’ initial strategic responses, setting the stage for the famous battles to come.

 

Herodotus Polymnia Highlights Thermopylae

While Polymnia is the muse of sacred hymns, eloquence, serious mime, and agriculture in Greek mythology, in Herodotus’s context, Polymnia is the name traditionally given to the Seventh Book of his Histories. This book contains his famous and detailed account of the Battle of Thermopylae.

Therefore, when you ask for “Herodotus Polymnia Highlights Thermopylae,” you ask for the key points of Herodotus’s narrative of this iconic battle in the Seventh Book. Here are some of the highlights from Herodotus’s account of the Battle of Thermopylae:

• The Narrow Pass: Herodotus emphasizes the strategic importance of the narrow pass of Thermopylae, a “funnel” that significantly reduced the Persian army’s numerical advantage. He describes the area’s geography in detail.
• The Greek Forces: He details the various Greek contingents present, although famously focusing on the 300 Spartans led by King Leonidas. He also mentions the contributions of other Peloponnesian and central Greek forces (Thespians, Thebans, etc.).
• Leonidas’s Leadership: Herodotus portrays Leonidas as a courageous and decisive leader who made a heroic stand despite knowing the likely outcome.
• Persian Numerical Superiority: Herodotus repeatedly stresses the vast size of the Persian army under Xerxes, starkly contrasting the small Greek force. While his numbers are likely exaggerated, the sense of overwhelming odds is clear.
• The Initial Battles: He describes the first two days of fighting, where the Greeks, using their superior armor, weaponry, and tactics within the narrow pass, inflicted heavy losses on the Persians, including Xerxes’ elite “Immortals.”
• Xerxes’ Frustration: Herodotus recounts Xerxes’s anger and desperation as his massive army failed to break the small Greek force. He even mentions Xerxes leaping from his throne in fear for his army.
• The Betrayal of Ephialtes: A local man named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by revealing a hidden mountain path that allowed the Persians to outflank the Greek position. This is a crucial turning point in Herodotus’s narrative.
• The Last Stand: Once the Greeks realized they were surrounded, Leonidas dismissed most of the allied troops, remaining with his 300 Spartans, the Thespians who chose to stay, and some Thebans (who Herodotus suggests were kept against their will). Their courageous last stand, fighting to the death, became a legendary act of sacrifice.
• Demaratus’s Warning: Herodotus includes a conversation between Xerxes and the exiled Spartan king, Demaratus, before the battle. Demaratus accurately predicts the Spartan courage and determination, which Xerxes initially dismisses.
• The Significance of the Stand: Herodotus views the stand at Thermopylae as a pivotal moment, buying crucial time for the rest of Greece to organize their defenses against the Persian invasion.

Herodotus’s account in Book VII (Polymnia) vividly describes a small force, led by Spartan valor, holding back a massive Persian army in a strategically important location. Courage, sacrifice, and the clash between Greek freedom and Persian tyranny are central to his narrative.

 

Herodotus: The Eighth Book, Entitled Urania

 

Battle of Salamis, 1785 engraving

(Wiki Image By Barthélémy (18th century) – [1]Published in 1798, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=91046173) 

 

Herodotus Urania Quotes

Here are some significant quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 8, Urania. This book covers the pivotal naval battles of Artemisium and Salamis, the conclusion of the Battle of Thermopylae, the Persian occupation and burning of Athens, and Xerxes’s subsequent retreat.

1. “[Themistocles to the Spartan commander Eurybiades during the heated debate before Salamis:] ‘Strike, but hear me!'”
   • Source: Book 8, Section 59
   • Context: The Spartan admiral Eurybiades, angered by Themistocles’s insistence on fighting at Salamis rather than retreating to the Isthmus of Corinth, raised his staff as if to strike him. This was Themistocles’s famous, defiant response, prioritizing his crucial strategic point over his personal safety.
   • Significance: Epitomizes Themistocles’s determination, quick wit, and commitment to the strategy he believed would save Greece.
2. “[Themistocles threatening to withdraw the Athenian fleet if the allies retreated from Salamis:] ‘If you do this [retreat], you will destroy Greece… For the whole fortune of the war depends on the fleet… if you will not stay, we [Athenians] will immediately take up our households and voyage to Siris in Italy…'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 8, Sections 61-62
   • Context: Themistocles uses the ultimate leverage – the threat of withdrawing the indispensable Athenian fleet – to force the reluctant Peloponnesian commanders to stay and fight at Salamis.
   • Significance: This shows the crucial importance of the Athenian navy to the Allied cause and Themistocles’s shrewd (and risky) political maneuvering to achieve his strategic aims.
3. “[Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus, advising Xerxes before Salamis:] ‘Spare your ships, and do not fight at sea… The Greeks are as far superior to your men in seamanship, as men are to women… If you hurry into battle, I fear your fleet will be defeated and bring disaster on your land forces too.'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 8, Section 68
   • Context: Artemisia, one of Xerxes’s naval commanders, offers surprisingly prudent advice, arguing against engaging the Greeks in the narrow straits of Salamis. Xerxes praises her counsel but ultimately ignores it.
   • Significance: This provides an example of wise counsel being offered (and rejected) within the Persian command structure. Highlights Artemisia as a notable and pragmatic figure.
4. “[Describing the Battle of Salamis:] The Greek fleet battled energetically and with good order, while the barbarians were disorganized and ineffective… most of their ships were destroyed, either by the Athenians or the Aeginetans.” (Representative summary)
   • Source: Based on descriptions in Book 8, Sections 84-90
   • Context: Summarize the course of the decisive naval battle.
   • Significance: This captures the essence of the Greek victory: superior tactics, knowledge of the waters, discipline, and fighting spirit overcame the Persians’ numerical advantage in the confined space.
5. “[Xerxes’ reaction upon witnessing the defeat at Salamis:] When Xerxes perceived the calamity… he feared that the Ionians might… destroy the bridges [over the Hellespont], and that he might be cut off in Europe and perish… he began to plan his escape.” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 8, Section 97
   • Context: Xerxes watches the destruction of his fleet from the shore.
   • Significance: This shows the immediate strategic consequence of the naval defeat—Xerxes’s primary concern shifts from conquest to securing his own retreat, effectively abandoning the immediate goal of conquering all of Greece.
6. “[Mardonius persuading Xerxes to leave him an army:] ‘Do not be grieved, Sire… it is not pieces of wood [ships] that will decide the issue between us, but men and horses… allow me to choose 300,000 troops… and I pledge myself to enslave Greece for you.'”
   • Source: Book 8, Section 100
   • Context: After the defeat at Salamis, Mardonius advises Xerxes to retreat but to leave him a substantial land force to attempt the conquest the following year.
   • Significance: This chapter sets up the final phase of the Persian invasion, focusing on the land campaign under Mardonius, which will be detailed in Book 9. It shows Persian determination despite the naval disaster.
7. “[Themistocles explaining his secret message to Xerxes (sent before the battle to trick the Persians into fighting at Salamis):] ‘I did this… wishing both to do the Athenians a service… and also that the barbarians might not pursue us closely…'” (Paraphrased explanation given after the battle)
   • Source: Book 8, Sections 109-110
   • Context: Themistocles explains his motivations for his clever and deceptive ruse that ensured the battle happened at Salamis.
   • Significance: Highlights the importance of strategy, deception, and Themistocles’s cunning in securing the Greek victory.

These quotes from Book 8 (Urania) focus on the critical naval dimension of the second Persian invasion, Themistocles’s strategic brilliance and political maneuvering, the decisive Battle of Salamis, and the beginning of Xerxes’s withdrawal, setting the stage for the final land battles.

 

Herodotus Urania Table

Here is a table summarizing the key sections, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 8, Urania. This book focuses on the crucial naval battles of the second Persian invasion and the turning point at Salamis.

Major Topic / Narrative Arc	Key Figures / Peoples Involved	Summary of Content / Key Events	Key Themes / Significance
1. Battle of Artemisium	Greek fleet (led by Eurybiades of Sparta, Themistocles influential), Persian fleet	Naval battles fought concurrently with the land Battle of Thermopylae. Series of engagements in the straits off northern Euboea. Largely indecisive, with heavy losses on both sides (especially Persians due to storms). Greek fleet withdraws upon receiving news of the defeat at Thermopylae.	This section links the land and sea campaigns, demonstrates early Greek naval resistance and tactics, and highlights the importance of weather. Greek withdrawal opened central Greece to the Persian advance.
2. Thermopylae Aftermath	Xerxes, Persians, Dead Spartans & Thespians	Persians advance through the pass; Xerxes views the battlefield and the dead (supposedly mutilates Leonidas’s body). Herodotus briefly mentions the dedication of epitaphs.	It shows the aftermath of the heroic defeat and touches on themes of Persian power and potential barbarity (mutilation).
3. Persian Advance & Destruction of Athens	Xerxes, Persians, Boeotians, Phocians, Athenians, Themistocles	Persians march south through Boeotia and Phocis, destroying cities that resist (Thespiae, Plataea). Following Themistocles’ interpretation of the “wooden wall” oracle (meaning ships), Athenians evacuated Athens to Salamis, Aegina, and Troezen. Persians occupied Athens and burned the Acropolis temples.	It demonstrates the destructive power of the Persian invasion, highlights the Athenian resolve and sacrifice in abandoning their city, and makes the burning of Athens a major rallying point and symbol of the conflict.
4. Greek Council at Salamis & Themistocles’s Strategy	Themistocles (Athens), Eurybiades (Sparta), Adeimantus (Corinth), and other Greek commanders	Heated debate among Greek naval commanders. Peloponnesians (led by Eurybiades and Adeimantus) wish to retreat and defend the Isthmus of Corinth. Themistocles passionately argues for fighting in the narrow straits of Salamis, where Greek ships have an advantage. He threatens to withdraw the crucial Athenian fleet if they retreat.	Crucial strategic debate. Highlights Greek disunity vs. Athenian leadership and naval power. Showcases Themistocles’s strategic insight, political skill, and determination (e.g., “Strike, but hear me!”).
5. Themistocles’ Ruse	Themistocles, Sicinnus (his slave), Xerxes, Persians	Themistocles sends Sicinnus a secret message to Xerxes, pretending loyalty and falsely claiming the Greeks are divided and planning to flee Salamis at night. He urges Xerxes to attack immediately to trap them.	This was a masterstroke of deception. It lured the Persians into fighting in the unfavorable narrow straits, ensuring the decisive battle occurred where Themistocles planned. It was a key factor in the Greek victory.
6. Battle of Salamis (480 BC)	Greek fleet (Athenians, Corinthians, Aeginetans, Spartans, etc.), Persian fleet (Phoenicians, Egyptians, Ionians, etc.), Xerxes, Artemisia	Persians blocked the straits. An intense naval battle was fought in the confined waters. Smaller, more maneuverable Greek triremes outfought the larger, more numerous Persian ships, which became disorganized. Artemisia’s notable actions (both wise counsel before and pragmatic fighting during) resulted in a decisive Greek victory. Xerxes witnessed the defeat from the shore.	Major turning point of the Greco-Persian Wars. Cripples the Persian navy; prevents coordinated land-sea operations; secures Greek control of the sea lanes; demonstrates the superiority of Greek naval tactics and Athenian sea power. Explores themes of courage vs. numbers.
7. Xerxes’ Retreat	Xerxes, Mardonius, Artemisia, Persians	Fearing the Greeks might destroy the Hellespont bridges and trap him in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat with the bulk of his army, following Artemisia’s advice.	This marks the failure of Xerxes’ campaign and leadership, shifts Persia’s strategic focus, and highlights the devastating impact of the Salamis defeat on Persian morale and strategy.
8. Mardonius Left in Command	Xerxes, Mardonius, Persian army	Xerxes agreed to Mardonius’s request to remain in Greece with a large, elite land force (chosen troops) to attempt the conquest the following year.	This sets the stage for the final land phase of the war (the Battle of Plataea, detailed in Book 9). The threat to Greece remains significant, but the immediate existential crisis has passed.

Export to Sheets

This table summarizes the dramatic events of Herodotus’s Book 8, Urania. It covers the key battles at sea (Artemisium and Salamis), the devastating Persian advance into Attica, the crucial strategic decisions made by the Greeks (especially Themistocles), and the turning point marked by the victory at Salamis and Xerxes’s subsequent retreat. In this book, the focus shifts decisively to naval power and Athenian leadership.

 

Herodotus Urania Highlights

Here are the key highlights from Herodotus’s Book 8, Urania:

1. Naval Battle of Artemisium: Describes the series of naval engagements fought concurrently with the Battle of Thermopylae. While largely indecisive, it showcased Greek naval resistance before their strategic withdrawal upon news of the land defeat.
2. Persian Occupation and Burning of Athens: A significant turning point where the Athenians evacuated their city following Themistocles’s interpretation of the “wooden wall” oracle (meaning ships). The Persians subsequently occupied Athens and destroyed its temples, including those on the Acropolis.
3. Themistocles’s Leadership and Strategy: The book heavily features the Athenian general Themistocles. Highlights include his crucial arguments persuading the allied Greek commanders to fight the decisive naval battle in the narrow straits of Salamis, rather than retreating to the Isthmus of Corinth. His famous quote, “Strike, but hear me!” originates from these debates.
4. Themistocles’s Ruse: Before the Battle of Salamis, Themistocles sent a secret message to Xerxes, pretending loyalty and tricking the Persian king into believing the Greeks were planning to flee. This deception ensured the Persians blocked the escape routes and engaged in the location most advantageous to the smaller Greek fleet.
5. The Decisive Battle of Salamis (480 BC): The centerpiece of the book. Herodotus provides a vivid account of the chaotic battle in the narrow straits, where the outnumbered Greek fleet, particularly the Athenians, outmaneuvers and decisively defeats the massive Persian navy.
6. Queen Artemisia’s Role: The actions and advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus, a queen commanding ships for Xerxes, are highlighted. She gives Xerxes prudent (though ignored) advice before the battle and fights cunningly during it, earning his admiration.
7. Xerxes’s Retreat: Witnessing the devastating defeat of his fleet at Salamis, Xerxes loses his nerve, fears being trapped in Europe, and decides to retreat with the bulk of his army back to Asia, leaving his general Mardonius with a large force to attempt conquest the following year.

In essence, Book 8 (Urania) narrates the critical turning point of the second Persian invasion. It details the destruction of Athens but culminates in the strategically brilliant Greek naval victory at Salamis, orchestrated largely by Themistocles, which shatters Persian sea power and forces Xerxes himself to retreat, setting the stage for the final land battles.

 

Herodotus Urania Highlights Salamis

In Greek mythology, Polymnia is the muse of sacred song, eloquence, serious mime, and agriculture. In contrast, Urania is the muse of astronomy. In the traditional division of Herodotus’s Histories, she is the name given to the Eighth Book, which contains Herodotus’s detailed account of the Battle of Salamis.

Here are some highlights from Herodotus’s account of the Battle of Salamis in Book VIII (Urania):

• Themistocles’ Strategy: Herodotus emphasizes the crucial role of the Athenian general Themistocles in convincing the reluctant Greek allies to fight at Salamis. He portrays Themistocles as cunning and persuasive, using threats and, ultimately, clever deception to force the battle.
• The Narrow Straits: Herodotus highlights the strategic advantage of the narrow straits of Salamis for the smaller Greek fleet against the numerically superior Persian navy. The confined space limited the Persians’ ability to maneuver effectively and utilize their numbers.
• The Greek Fleet: He details the various Greek contingents and their numbers, with the Athenians providing the largest and most effective portion of the fleet. He notes the initial disagreements and fears among the Greek commanders about fighting at Salamis.
• The Persian Fleet: Herodotus describes the Persian fleet’s massive size and initial confidence under Xerxes. He also mentions Xerxes watching the battle from a vantage point on the shore.
• The Battle: Herodotus provides a vivid, though sometimes debated in its specifics, account of the naval battle. He describes the Greek tactics of ramming and boarding, the confusion within the Persian ranks due to the narrow waters, and the fierce fighting.
• Artemisia of Halicarnassus: Herodotus pays significant attention to Artemisia, the female commander of the Carian contingent in the Persian fleet. He recounts her bravery and strategic thinking, including an episode in which she cleverly escaped a Greek ship by ramming one of her allies.
• The Greek Victory: Herodotus portrays the decisive victory of the outnumbered Greek fleet, resulting in heavy losses for the Persians and a major blow to Xerxes’ ambitions.
• Xerxes’ Reaction and Retreat: He describes Xerxes’ shock and despair at the defeat of his navy. Fearing the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy his bridges, he began to plan his retreat back to Asia, leaving a significant portion of his army under Mardonius in Greece.
• The Significance of the Victory: Herodotus underscores the immense importance of the Battle of Salamis as a turning point in the Persian Wars. The Greek naval victory secured their sea control, protected the Peloponnese from immediate invasion, and ultimately contributed to the eventual Persian defeat.

In summary, Herodotus’s Book VIII (Urania) vividly recounts the strategic maneuvering, intense naval combat, and decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Salamis, highlighting Themistocles’s cunning and the unexpected defeat of the mighty Persian fleet in the narrow straits.

Herodotus: The Ninth Book, Entitled Calliope

Answer of the Athenian Aristides to the ambassadors of Mardonius: “As long as the sun holds to its present course, we shall never come to terms with Xerxes”.

(Wiki Image By M. A. Barth – ‘Vorzeit und Gegenwart”, Augsbourg, 1832, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=74939095) 

 

Camp of Mardonius and disposition of Achaemenid troops at the Battle of Plataea (479 BC), in which Mardonius was killed. From left to right: Greek allies, Sacae, Indians, Bactrians, Medes, and Persians.

(Wiki Image By Jean-Denis Barbié du Bocage – This file was derived from: 1784 Map of the Battle of Plataea, Greece – Geographicus – BattleofPlataea-bocage-1784.jpg, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=74921203) 

 

Herodotus Calliope Quotes

Okay, here are some significant quotes and representative statements from Herodotus’s Book 9, Calliope. This final book details the decisive land Battle of Plataea, the concurrent naval Battle of Mycale, and the subsequent events marking the conclusion of the second Persian invasion of Greece.

1. “[The Athenians replying to Mardonius’s offer of alliance:] ‘As long as the sun holds its present course in the sky, we will never come to terms with Xerxes. Rather, we will resist him unceasingly, trusting in the gods, whose temples and statues he has burnt and overthrown, and in the heroes…'” (Paraphrased for clarity)
   • Source: Book 9, Section 7
   • Context: Mardonius, the Persian general left in command by Xerxes, makes a generous offer to Athens, hoping to break the Greek alliance. The Athenians delivered this defiant refusal, choosing solidarity with Greece over self-preservation.
   • Significance: This demonstrates unwavering Athenian resolve, commitment to the Greek cause, and determination to seek revenge after the burning of their city.
2. “[Pausanias, the Spartan commander at Plataea, before ordering the final charge:] Pausanias lifted his eyes to the temple of Hera… and prayed… asking the goddess not to frustrate the hopes of the Greeks… Immediately after Pausanias’ prayer, the Tegeans sprang forward first… and the sacrifices became favorable to the Lacedaemonians…” (Paraphrased narrative summary)
   • Source: Book 9, Sections 61-62
   • Context: A critical moment during the Battle of Plataea. The Spartans are under heavy pressure from Persian archers, but Pausanias waits for favorable omens from the sacrifices before committing his troops.
   • Significance: Highlights the importance of religious ritual and omens in Greek warfare, even in the heat of battle, and marks the turning point leading to the decisive Spartan charge.
3. “For here Pausanias won the most splendid victory of all those which are known to us.”
   • Source: Book 9, Section 64
   • Context: Herodotus’s own assessment immediately after describing the Spartan breakthrough and the death of Mardonius at Plataea.
   • Significance: Herodotus’s explicit judgment on the immense importance and glory of the victory at Plataea effectively ended the Persian threat on land.
4. “[After Mardonius fell at Plataea]… the rest of the Persians turned and fled, giving way before the Lacedaemonians.”
   • Source: Book 9, Section 63
   • Context: Describing the immediate consequence of the Persian general Mardonius being killed in the fighting against the Spartans.
   • Significance: This shows the importance of leadership in ancient battles; the death of the commander led to the collapse of the Persian center and its subsequent rout.
5. “[Pausanias, contrasting Persian luxury with Spartan simplicity after Plataea:] ‘Men of Greece, I brought you here to show you the folly of the Median king, who, living like this, came against us, who live so wretchedly, to rob us of our poverty.'”
   • Source: Book 9, Section 82
   • Context: Pausanias orders Mardonius’s luxurious campaign tent to be set up alongside a simple Spartan meal, then calls the Greek generals to witness the contrast.
   • Significance: A famous anecdote highlights the perceived moral and cultural differences between the luxurious, despotic Persians and the hardy, simple Greeks. It serves as a reflection on the reasons for the Greek victory.
6. “[At the Battle of Mycale:] …as soon as the Samians… saw that the battle was leaning towards the Greeks, they did all they could to help them… the other Ionians, seeing the Samians lead the way, likewise deserted the Persians and attacked them.” (Paraphrased summary)
   • Source: Book 9, Sections 103-104
   • Context: During the Battle of Mycale on the coast of Ionia (fought on the same day as Plataea), the Ionian Greeks fighting within the Persian ranks switch sides once they see the mainland Greeks gaining the upper hand.
   • Significance: Marks the decisive moment in the liberation of Ionia from Persian rule, triggered by the Greek victories at Plataea and Mycale.
7. “[Cyrus the Great’s concluding advice to the Persians, warning against leaving their rugged homeland:] ‘Soft lands breed soft men. It is not the property of any one soil to produce fine fruits and good soldiers too.’ The Persians… chose rather to  dwell in a churlish land and exercise lordship, than to cultivate plains and be the slaves of others.” 
   • Source: Book 9, Section 122
   • Context: This is the very final anecdote of The Histories. Herodotus recounts a story in which Cyrus warns his people that conquering richer, easier lands might lead to their own decline.
   • Significance: This passage provides a concluding moral for the entire work, reflecting on the relationship between environment, character, freedom, and empire. It suggests that hardiness, bred by a tough environment, is necessary to maintain freedom and rule.

These quotes from Book 9 (Calliope) capture the culmination of the Greco-Persian Wars, highlighting Greek resolve, the decisive victories at Plataea and Mycale, the collapse of the Persian invasion, and concluding reflections on the nature of freedom and empire.

 

Herodotus Calliope Table

Here is a table summarizing the key sections, content, and themes of Herodotus’s Book 9, Calliope. This final book covers the decisive battles of Plataea and Mycale, marking the conclusion of the second Persian invasion of Greece.

Major Topic / Narrative Arc	Key Figures / Peoples Involved	Summary of Content / Key Events	Key Themes / Significance
1. Mardonius’s Diplomacy & Second Occupation of Athens	Mardonius, Alexander I of Macedon, Athenians, Spartans	Mardonius, commanding the Persian forces left in Greece, attempted diplomacy. He sent Alexander I of Macedon to Athens with generous offers of alliance and rebuilding. The Athenians firmly refused, citing their commitment to Greek freedom and anger over the previous destruction. Spartans delayed sending aid; Mardonius marched south again, reoccupied, and further devastated Athens.	It highlights the unwavering Athenian resolve and commitment to the Greek cause. It also shows continuing tensions within the Greek alliance (Spartan delay) and reinforces the stakes of the conflict: freedom vs. submission.
2. Greek Mobilization & Preliminaries to Plataea	Pausanias (Spartan Regent & Commander), Combined Greek Army (Spartans, Tegeans, Athenians, Corinthians, etc.), Mardonius, Persian Army (Persians, Medes, Boeotians, allied Greeks)	Spartans finally overcame delays and marched north under Pausanias. The full allied Greek army assembled in Boeotia near Plataea, facing Mardonius’s forces. A period of maneuvering, skirmishes (notably successful Persian cavalry attacks disrupting Greek supplies), and seeking favorable omens through sacrifices ensues.	It demonstrated eventual Greek unity in the face of the final threat, set the stage for the decisive land battle, and highlighted the importance of logistics, cavalry, and religious ritual in ancient warfare.
3. Battle of Plataea (479 BC)	Pausanias, Mardonius, Aristides (Athens), Spartans, Tegeans, Athenians, Persians, Boeotians	The disruption of Greek supply lines forced a chaotic nighttime withdrawal attempt. Spartans and Tegeans became isolated and faced the main Persian infantry force. Pausanias waits for favorable omens, then orders the charge. Fierce fighting ensues; Mardonius is killed by a Spartan. Persian morale collapses; rout ensues. Persians are massacred within their fortified camp. Athenians defeat the Thebans fighting for Persia.	It was a decisive land victory for the Greeks, effectively ending the Persian threat to mainland Greece. It highlights Spartan discipline and hoplite superiority over Persian infantry. It underscores the importance of leadership (Mardonius’s death) and celebrates Greek unity and courage.
4. Aftermath of Plataea	Pausanias, Greek generals, Thebans	The immense Persian spoils found in the camp were collected and divided. Thebes was sieged and punished for collaborating with Persia. Pausanias famously contrasts Persian luxury with Spartan simplicity by comparing Mardonius’s opulent tent and dinner service with a basic Laconian meal.	It solidifies the Greek victory, addresses the issue of Greek collaborationism (Medism), and reinforces the cultural and moral contrast Herodotus draws between Greeks and Persians.
5. Battle of Mycale (479 BC)	Leotychides (Spartan Admiral), Xanthippus (Athenian General), Greek fleet, Persian fleet and army remnants, Ionians, Samians	Fought concurrently with Plataea (according to Herodotus). Greek fleet pursues the remnants of the Persian navy to Ionia. Persians beach their ships at Mycale and form a defensive stockade on land. Greeks disembark and attack. Ionians within the Persian camp defect and join the attack. Decisive Greek victory; Persian ships and camp destroyed.	Secures Greek naval dominance in the Aegean. Leads directly to the liberation of Ionia from Persian rule. Marks the transition from defense to offense for the Greeks. Demonstrates the spreading desire for freedom among Persian-ruled Greeks.
6. Liberation of Ionia & Aftermath	Ionians, Spartans, Athenians	Ionians revolt against Persia and are accepted into the Hellenic League (the anti-Persian alliance). Spartans proposed relocating Ionians to mainland Greece (rejected). Athenians take leadership in the continuing war in the Aegean, besieging and capturing Sestos on the Hellespont (marks the end of Herodotus’s narrative).	It ended Persian control over Ionian Greeks. It marked the beginning of Athenian leadership in the Aegean (a prelude to the Delian League and Athenian Empire). It also shows the fragmentation of the Hellenic League after the main threat subsides.
7. Concluding Anecdote	Cyrus the Great, Artembares, Persians	Herodotus ends The Histories with a story from Cyrus’s time. Artembares suggests the Persians move from their rugged homeland (Persis) to a richer, conquered land. Cyrus warns against this, stating, “Soft lands breed soft men,” and advises that it is better to rule from a harsh land than to be ruled in a fertile one. The Persians agreed with Cyrus.	Provides a final moral reflection on the relationship between environment, character, freedom, and empire. Suggests that hardship fosters the virtues necessary for rule, serving as both a warning and an explanation for Persian and Greek fortunes.

Export to Sheets

This table structure follows the main narrative threads of Herodotus’s Book 9, Calliope. It outlines the Greeks’ final, decisive victories at Plataea and Mycale and the liberation of Ionia, concluding with a thematic anecdote from Persia’s founding king. It highlights the conflict’s culmination and the key events that secured Greek freedom from the second Persian invasion.

 

Herodotus Calliope Highlights

Here are the key highlights from Herodotus’s Book 9, Calliope:

1. Athenian Resolve and Defiance: Even after their city is occupied and destroyed by Mardonius for a second time, the Athenians steadfastly refuse generous Persian offers of alliance, choosing instead to remain loyal to the Greek cause and resist Persian domination.
2. The Decisive Battle of Plataea (479 BC): The climactic land battle of the Greco-Persian Wars. Herodotus details the maneuvering of the massive combined Greek army (under Spartan leadership) and Mardonius’s Persian forces, culminating in a decisive Greek victory, the death of Mardonius, and the near annihilation of the Persian army in Greece.
3. Spartan Leadership and Prowess: The battle highlights the discipline and courage of the Spartan hoplites under the command of the regent Pausanias, particularly their crucial stand against the main Persian infantry force. The famous anecdote of Pausanias contrasting Persian luxury with Spartan simplicity after the battle underscores this theme.
4. The Battle of Mycale (479 BC): Fought concurrently with Plataea (according to Herodotus). The Greek fleet attacked the remnants of the Persian navy beached on the coast of Ionia. The battle turns decisively when the Ionian Greeks fighting alongside the Persians defect, leading to another major Greek victory and the destruction of the Persian forces present.
5. Liberation of Ionia: The victory at Mycale signals the liberation of the Ionian Greek cities from Persian rule, as they formally revolt and join the Hellenic alliance, marking a significant shift in the Aegean power balance.
6. Herodotus’s Concluding Anecdote: The Histories famously ends with an anecdote about Cyrus the Great advising the Persians against migrating from their rugged homeland to a more fertile land, warning that “Soft lands breed soft men,” implying that hardship fosters the qualities needed for freedom and empire. This serves as a final thematic reflection.

In essence, Book 9 (Calliope) provides the dramatic conclusion to the Persian invasion, detailing the final, decisive Greek victories on land and sea at Plataea and Mycale, the liberation of Ionia, and the concluding thoughts on the nature of empire and freedom.

 

Herodotus Calliope Highlights Plataea

You are correct that Calliope is the muse of epic poetry. In the traditional naming of Herodotus’ Histories, Calliope is the name given to the Ninth and Final Book. This book contains Herodotus’s detailed account of the Battle of Plataea.

Here are some of the highlights from Herodotus’s account of the Battle of Plataea in Book IX (Calliope):

• The Gathering of the Greek Forces: Herodotus describes the large and diverse Greek army assembled to face the remaining Persian forces under Mardonius in Boeotia. He emphasizes the contributions of various city-states, with the Spartans and Athenians playing prominent roles.
• Hesitations and Strategic Maneuvering: Unlike the more straightforward accounts of Marathon and Thermopylae, the lead-up to Plataea involves significant strategic delays, disagreements among the Greek leaders (particularly between the Spartans and Athenians regarding leadership), and complex troop movements. Herodotus details these hesitations and the eventual positioning of the armies.
• Mardonius’s Arrogance and Impatience: Herodotus portrays the Persian commander Mardonius as eager for battle and confident in his ability to defeat the Greeks, despite the earlier defeats at Marathon and Salamis.
• The Importance of Omens and Prophecies: As with other battles, Herodotus includes accounts of omens and prophecies that influenced the decisions and morale of Greeks and the Persians.
• The Battle Itself: Herodotus provides a detailed, though sometimes debated, account of the battle. Key aspects include:
  • Spartan Bravery: The Spartans are depicted as fighting fiercely and playing a crucial role in breaking the Persian ranks. Their disciplined hoplite warfare is contrasted with the Persian style of fighting.
  • The Athenian Contribution: Herodotus highlights the critical role of the Athenian forces in fighting against the Theban contingent (allied with the Persians) and their overall contribution to the victory.
  • Individual Heroism: He recounts acts of bravery and leadership by various Greek commanders and soldiers.
  • The Death of Mardonius: The death of the Persian commander Mardonius is portrayed as a pivotal moment that significantly demoralized the Persian army.
• The Rout of the Persian Army: Following Mardonius’s death and the breaking of their main line, the Persian army is described as being decisively routed, with heavy casualties.
• The Spoils of War: Herodotus details the vast wealth and spoils captured by the victorious Greeks in the Persian camp, highlighting the scale of the Persian invasion.
• The Aftermath and Significance: Herodotus emphasizes the immense significance of the Battle of Plataea as the final major land battle of the Persian Wars on Greek soil. The Greek victory at Plataea, combined with the naval victory at Mycale on the same day (according to tradition), effectively ended the Persian threat to mainland Greece.

In summary, Herodotus’s Book IX (Calliope) culminates the narrative of the Persian Wars with the decisive Battle of Plataea. It highlights the collective effort of the Greek city-states, the bravery of the Spartan and Athenian forces, the strategic complexities leading to the battle, and the final defeat of the Persian invasion on land.

 

 

The History of Herodotus. “Father of Lies” or Truth.

The debate over whether Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) should be considered the “Father of History” or the “Father of Lies” is almost as old as his work itself. As is often the case, the truth lies in between and depends heavily on the standards by which we judge him.

Arguments for “Father of History” (Truth Seeker):

1. Pioneering Intent: He was the first known writer to undertake a systematic, large-scale investigation (historia, meaning “inquiry”) into the past. He specifically aimed to explain the causes of significant events like the Greco-Persian Wars rather than just chronicling them or attributing everything to myth.  
2. Methodology (for his time): He traveled extensively, gathered information from diverse sources (oral accounts, eyewitness reports where possible, inscriptions, priests, local traditions), and often presented differing accounts of the same event, sometimes expressing his skepticism (“My business is to record what people say, but I am by no means bound to believe it…”).  
3. Broad Scope & Inclusivity: He showed remarkable curiosity about non-Greek cultures (“barbarians”), including detailed descriptions of their customs, geography, and history, attempting to understand them on their terms to some extent.  
4. Preservation of Information: The Histories preserved a vast amount of information about the 5th century BC and earlier periods, including details about societies, events, and traditions that would otherwise be lost.
5. Focus on Human Actions: While acknowledging fate and the gods, his narrative’s primary drivers are human decisions, ambitions, conflicts, and cultural differences.  

Arguments for “Father of Lies” (Inaccuracies and Flaws):

1. Inclusion of Myth and Fable: Herodotus readily included myths, legends, fantastical stories (e.g., gold-digging ants, men with feet backwards), and divine interventions, often without clearly distinguishing them from factual accounts by modern standards.
2. Reliance on Hearsay: Much of his information came from oral sources, which are inherently unreliable and prone to exaggeration, bias, and transmission errors. He didn’t always apply rigorous critical analysis to these sources.
3. Factual Errors: His work contains numerous demonstrable errors in chronology, geography, numbers (especially army sizes), and specific details compared to archaeological evidence or other contemporary sources.
4. Lack of Modern Rigor: He did not have the modern historical toolkit of systematic source citation, cross-referencing, archaeological integration, or peer review.
5. Potential Bias: Despite his efforts at inclusivity, his perspective is ultimately that of a 5th-century Greek man.

Conclusion: A Nuanced View

Calling Herodotus the “Father of Lies” is overly harsh and fails to recognize his groundbreaking achievement and genuine intent to inquire into the past. He was operating at the very dawn of historical writing as a discipline. Conversely, calling him the “Father of History” acknowledges his foundational role but requires understanding that his conception of “history” and his methods differed from ours.

He sought a form of truth encompassing factual events and cultural beliefs, traditions, stories, and human conflict’s underlying causes (as he understood them, including divine influence). He was a pioneering inquirer and a master storyteller. His work contains invaluable historical information and elements that are not factual by modern standards.  

Herodotus is best understood as the crucial starting point for Western historical writing. He asked the right questions (Why did things happen?) and employed novel methods (extensive travel and inquiry) for his time. While not consistently factually accurate by today’s strict criteria, his work remains a rich, fascinating, and indispensable source for understanding the ancient world and the origins of history itself. He wasn’t lying, but his definition and pursuit of historical truth differed.   

 

The History of Herodotus. Two thousand five hundred years is the best history book written!

That’s a powerful statement celebrating Herodotus’s The Histories! It’s truly remarkable that a work written roughly 2,500 years ago (in the 5th century BC) continues to be read, studied, and admired today.

Calling it the absolute “best” history book is subjective, of course, as historical methods and standards have evolved dramatically since antiquity. Modern historians emphasize rigorous source criticism and factual verification and generally exclude myths, divine intervention, and uncorroborated anecdotes in a way Herodotus did not. His work contains elements that don’t meet today’s criteria for factual accuracy.

However, Herodotus’s achievement is undeniably foundational and incredibly significant, so he’s called the “Father of History.”

Here’s why The Histories holds such an important place:

1. Pioneering Work: It represents the first known attempt in the Western world to conduct a systematic, large-scale investigation (historia means “inquiry”) into historical events and explain their causes based on collected evidence (even if that evidence included oral traditions and legends).
2. Ambitious Scope: It covers a vast geographical and temporal scope, attempting to explain the conflict between the Greek world and the Persian Empire by delving into the histories and cultures of various peoples (Lydians, Persians, Egyptians, Scythians, etc.).
3. Preservation of Information: Herodotus preserved an enormous amount of information (including stories, customs, and legends) about the ancient world that would otherwise have been lost.
4. Engaging Narrative: He was a master storyteller. His work has compelling narratives, fascinating characters, and memorable anecdotes, making it far more readable than many later historical chronicles.
5. Focus on Causation: He explicitly aimed to understand why events happened, particularly the great conflict between East and West.

So, while perhaps not the “best” according to modern academic standards of evidence and objectivity, Herodotus’s The Histories remains arguably one of the most important, influential, and enduringly fascinating historical works ever written. Its creation marked the birth of history as a distinct field of inquiry in the Western tradition.